第一篇:英语中的性别歧视及产生的原因
浅谈英语中的性别歧视及产生的原因
南溪区江南镇初级中学校 刘长连
内容摘要:语言直接反映社会生活。从语言现象的发展和变化中能够看到社会生活的一些奥妙。语言中性别歧视指在语言和语言使用中针对不同的性别而产生的偏见和歧视,它主要指的是对女性的歧视。本文主要通过对英语语言中的女性歧视现象来探讨产生这种现象的原因及为了消除语言中的性别歧视而进行的语言中性化尝试。关键词:性别歧视;原因;语言中性化 1.引言
语言是一种社会现象。社会生活离不开语言,现时语言也是在某个特定的言语团体中使用的。因此社会生活必然对语言产生强有力的影响。社会语言学家认为,语言不仅是思想内容的载体,它本身就是思想内容。从某种意义上,我们可以说语言是社会生活的一面镜子。它反映了某个言语团体里人的思想意识,道德观念以及人与人之间的关系。所以我们从语言这面镜子里可以看到社会生活的一角,从语言现象的发展和变化中能够看到社会生活的一些奥秘。
在社会生活中语言对男女一视同仁,但语言是文化的载体,并在人们不断使用的过程中逐渐得到丰富和发展。作为一个地区,一个民族约定俗成的一种表达方式,语言必然会反映出一定的社会价值观念和民族思维方式。性别歧视是以性别为基础而产生的一种社会歧视现象。《朗曼英语词典》对“性别歧视”的解释是:“以性别为基础的歧视,尤其是男性对女性的偏见。《美国传统字典》的定义是“一种性别成员对另一性别成员,尤其是男性对女性的歧视”。虽然它可以表现为男性对女性的歧视,也可以表现为女性对男性的歧视。但是“性别歧视”通常是对女性的歧视,是人们对女性的偏见和男女社会地位不平等的反映。女性长期以来被看作是the weaker sex/the second sex,是男性的陪衬和附属品。即使在标榜人权、平等的西方发达国家中也是如此。而现代女权运动轰轰烈烈的发展形势正是对这一不平等现象的反抗和反映。从而在语言中,出现了多种多样的性别歧视语,英语也不例外。
“男尊女卑”的思想并非中国独有,而几乎是一种全球现象。那么,英语语言这面镜子是如何反映这种社会现象的呢? 2.性别歧视语言现象
英语在漫长的发展过程中逐渐形成了以指称男性的词语来概指两性的趋势。虽然人们在使用中时不时有意歧视女性,但仍然反映了社会的偏见,有时会引起误解,并且产生了对女性含有歧视意义的词语结构,因此有人称之为“sexist language”(性别语言)。2.1 称谓中的性别歧视 2.1.1 亲昵称谓
在西方,男性上司称呼他们的女性下属时可以用一些表示亲密关系的昵称,如sugar, darling, sweetie,反过来,女性下属却不能用这些昵称来称呼她们的上司,而且女性上司也不能如此来称呼她们的男性职员。可是陌生男子或非亲密关系的男子却可以用昵称来称呼女子,这说明在英美社会中女性比男性社会地位低,受到的尊重比男性少。2.1.2 姓名称谓 在西方,女子婚前一般用父姓,婚后改用丈夫的姓,例如:在西方婚礼上,新郎新娘步入教堂时,牧师宣布:“I now pronounce you man and wife.”。婚后的男子依旧是man ,而婚后的女子则由Miss变成了wife这种现象不乏女权主义者和职业妇女。当时的美国总统Bill Clinton的夫人Hilary Rodhamon本人是一位女权运动者 ,但她还是把自己的名字根据丈夫和自己的政治需要, 先从Hilary Rodhamon改为Hilary Rodhamon Clinton, 最后改为Hilary Clinton。但是不管怎么改, 都不能超出如下选择: 要么跟父亲姓, 要么跟丈夫姓。这种以丈夫的姓冠之于前的称呼 ,表明妇女出嫁后就成了丈夫的私有财产, 是属于丈夫的。因此无法得到与丈夫平等的权利。未婚女性用Miss冠以父姓, 已婚的用Mrs.或Lady冠以丈夫的姓氏。2.1.3 指代称谓
许多词语结构本来无好坏褒贬之分,只是由于人们的看法和社会的偏见才使它们具有此种区别。英语中一些词语结构就含有贬抑女性或视其为男性附属物的意味。如:提到男女双方时,双方不是处于平等地位,而是男先女后。如:king and queen, brother and sister, father and mother, boys and girls, husband and wife, Adam and Eve, man and woman, Mr.Lucas and his wife Louise.我们可常碰到男性代词概指两性的例子:
Any patient is free to bring his complaint to me if he feels aggrieved.We hope the reader will use his own judgment.Everyone should hand in his homework tomorrow.按规范语法,三个句子中的he 和his 均不指具体的人,而泛指两性。换言之,he 包括she, his包括her。然而实际上,在一般人的心目中,he 和his 已基本男性化了。人们做出的心理反映往往要经历一个先男性后女性的过程。这就反映了男性在社会中所起的支配地位。英语中常用man, mankind 或以-man 结尾的词概指两性。如:chairman, mailman, policeman, workman等。
The average man votes according to his self interest.This was an important step for mankind.Write to your congressman today.2.2 词汇中的男女不平等现象
在英语中,指称社会地位较低的职业往往有男性名词也有女性名词,如waiter/ waitress, steward/stewardess.但指称社会地位较高的职业时,只有男性名词了,要表达女性概念,只能在前面加上lady, woman, female等词,如:a lady-doctor, a woman-lawyer, a female-surgeon。英语语言中是否只缺指称女子的词呢?不!也有些词是只指女子而不指男子,或没有指男子的对应的词,如英语中的baby-sitter按理说这应该是个中性词,但它却被视为女性,故有male baby-sitter之说。male prostitute(男妓)male nurse(男护士)也是同样的情况,甚至还有male house wife(男家庭主妇)而不说house husband。显而易见,缺男性名词的职业在社会上都是被认为地位低微下贱的,男子不能或不该“屈尊俯就”。
男主女从,以逻辑性为中心,女性便居于从属地位。就词汇而言,如以--er,--or 结尾的名词实则是个中性词,但人们将之看作男性名词,所以如是女性则在前面加woman,如:a woman doctor。man 一词不但可以指男人,而且作为“人类的总称”,而woman 则不然。许多职业名词常以man 作为后缀,尽管干这工作的有许多女性。英语中往往还通过对女性名词的恶化来达到性别歧视的目的,光表示“性生活乱七八糟的女子”的词竟达到520多个,几乎所有的女性名词都带有贬义,如queen, lady, mistress, madam等,其贬义为“雌猫,情妇,鸨母”等,没有一个女性名词和对应的男性名词具有完全对等的含义。2.3 语义,词义上的男女不平等现象
同样一个词,用于男子身上和用于女子身上,意思就迥然不同。prudent man 指说明这个男人谨小慎微,畏首畏尾,而prudent woman 指办事细心谨慎。imposing man 指给人印象深刻,令人钦佩的男人,而imposing woman 指令人生畏,冷漠无情的女人。He is a professional.他是从事专门职业的人。而She is a professional.她是一名妓女。
有时,两个词指同一事物,语感色彩也不一样,如bachelor指“未婚男子,单身汉”,而spinster 指“未婚女子,老处女”。然而,这两个词的语感色彩并不平等,因为社会对男女的独身看法也是不一样的。从文化意义上分析,女子只有附属于男子时,才获得社会地位,越是法定的,就越有依附关系,其社会地位也越牢固。例如,做某人的妻子(wife)强于做情人(mistress),而情人从词义上讲,又好于做“女光棍”(spinster)因为“spinster”被人视为身心某方面不健全。
在称谓男性的头衔时不必反映婚否,似乎无论婚否,逻辑性都是健全的,而女性的头衔必须反映某种依附关系。例如Mrs.,Miss和Ms.,其中Mrs.与稳固的社会地位相联系,Miss次之,Ms.则显得神秘莫测。
为什么会产生语义上的男女不平等呢?有人认为,这来自对女性词贬义化这一社会心理现象。有人甚至断言:所有词不论其来源如何,只要是与女性有联系的便会带上色彩。因为在这个大男子主义的社会里,这是一条很重要的语义规则。在语言里,我们的确可以找到很多这样的例子,有些指称女子的词,开始是褒义的,但后来慢慢变成贬义词。如英语名词tart 开始指“小馅饼”被用于对女子的爱称,并无贬义色彩,后来才慢慢带上了“妓女,举止轻浮的女人”等意义。“whore, harlot, wench” 妓女,荡妇等词的演变过程也是类似情况。据统计,“妓女”的同义词往往是由一般词汇降格而来,有500 多个“妓女”名词而与之对应的“男妓”名词只有65个。
词义中的性别歧视。下面从“标志理论”入手,讨论词义上的性别歧视。在词义方面,男性词汇往往无标志,女性词汇常为有标志。男性词汇常常是褒义,女性词汇含有贬义,以至于我们不得不找一个委婉语来代替它,下面这些都是能从语义,词义这个侧面说明语言对女性的歧视。
无语义标志的词
有语义标志的词
man(male human race)woman(female only)he(he and she)she(only she)drake(male, both male and female)duke(only female)fox(同上)vixen(同上)dog(同上)bitch(同上)
man 是一个普通的英语可数名词,既可以作单数,也可以作复数,表示总数。例如It’s man that is responsible for environmental pollution.Men had lived on this island for ten thousand years.这两个句子中的man 和men 都为无语义标志,表示总称,很明显包括woman 在内,但是woman 和women 却有明确的标志。2.4 职业中的性别歧视
许多表示职业的名词,如engineer ,pilot, scientist ,writer, doctor,pilot, scientist, engineer, pilot等对男女都适用,本来是中性词汇,本身没有性的区别。“由于历史上男性长期占据社会主导地位,人们习惯把它们与男性联系起来。”如要特别指女性从事相同职业时,往往在前面加上female, woman,lady, 从而使女性职业名词在外在的形式上呈现出“有标志性”。如woman doctor, female pilot, woman scientist, woman lawyer等。而行业名称冠以男性标记反而不符合语言习惯,但男保姆、男护士除外。只有一些地位较低的职业,如nurse, secretary等,传统上让人联想到女性,而与男性无缘。这种习惯除了与历史和现实有关,也可以说是一种性别歧视。3.英语语言中性别歧视现象产生的原因 3.1 历史原因
在西方文化传统中,男性一直被认为富于创造力。在《圣经》里,创造世界的耶和华为男性,而耶和华创造的亚当亦是男性,亚当的妻子夏娃只不过是亚当一条肋骨的衍化物。这一传统观念就把创造力固定在男人身上,后人便有了“男性的特质是创造力的天赋”的说法。并且在圣经《创世纪》关于上帝造人的神话成了语言起源学说的联想依据。在他们看来,既然上帝造了亚当这天下第一个男人,语言中的“性”范畴就应将阳性置于首位。如果把两者的顺序颠倒过来,就不符合语言习惯。英语语法并没有规定“先男后女”的语序,但人们在长期的言语习惯中,大都以男为先,女为后,女性只能是跟随在男性后面的第二性别。男先女后的语序是如此常见,以至于反过来如说woman and man ,she or he等则会令人感到不习惯。3.2 社会原因
性别歧视的根源可以追溯到史前时代男女所扮演的性别角色。由于男性的肌肉比女性肌肉发达,又不生育,于是他们担当起打猎、耕作的角色,妇女体弱、要生育,所以负责照顾孩子、料理家庭、采集食物等。那时,男女角色虽然不同,但还没有一方价值高于另一方的观念。随着社会生产力的不断发展,男子逐渐从事更多的农业生产活动,占据了主导地位,妇女的地位随着供给食物能力的降低而下降。到了中世纪时期,妇女由于能生养孩子,能为土地所有者生养合法继承人,她们成了地主丈夫的宝贵财产。为了使妇女处于这样的地位,统治者便借助法律令女性屈服和受制于丈夫。于是,各种约束妇女的社会规范和习俗开始形成。在漫长的父系社会里,妇女地位低下,依附男性,受制于男性,这种观念逐渐根深蒂固,被人们视为理所当然。直到二十世纪,妇女的地位有了很大的改善,但是社会化偏见是在社会化的过程中,通过社会群体、父母、亲友、伙伴的言传身教和大众传媒(广播,电影,电视,报纸)获得的。人们对女性的歧视和偏见也是从父母,亲友或群体的交往中直接获得的,或通过大众传媒获得的。在英语中,受传统观念的影响,对女性的语言歧视已经成为了一种恶性循环。比如,人们一看到或听到“virgin”和“prostitute”这两个词,首先想到的就是“处女”和“妓女”的意思,而很少想到它们还分别可用于指“处男”和“男娼”。3.3 文化意识的影响
对女性的歧视和偏见作为偏离客观事实的看法和态度,也是文化意识形态的一部分。所谓文化意识形态,是指与文化价值有密切关系的观念和态度。文化意识形态的传播会反作用于对女性的歧视和偏见。神话是文化的一种形式,女性在神话中的形象也能帮助我们了解语言中的性别歧视现象。在世界各国的许多神话中,男性往往被当作“物种之范”,而女性则是男性的变体,即便女性有时也被冠以“富饶之神”,“大地之母”等美誉,但是她最终仍然逃脱不了“万恶之源”的罪名。受文化意识的影响,英语中也存在大量的蔑视妇女的用语。4.结束语:女权运动及英语语言中性化趋势
语言是社会约定俗成的一种符号,它具有可变性及深沉性特点。同时语言直接反映社会生活,特别是语言的建筑材—词汇对社会生活的变化和发展甚是敏感。词汇作为一种体系,属于历史范畴,每个词所具有的属性,都属于一定的历史时期。通过对词汇的分析研究,我们可以看出社会的变化。就英语而言,我们可看出许多对女性歧视的语言现象。但随着世界妇女解放运动的蓬勃开展,妇女地位的日益提高,语言的这种性别现象越来越少。因此我们应该大力推广语言中性化,如:
1)广泛推广中性词。广泛推广中性词是一种发展的新趋势,若干年后如:hero-heroine, master-mistress 有消失的可能。现常用的中性词有:humanity 代替mankind, artificial 代替man-made, work force 代替man power, police officer代替policeman, camera operator 代替camera man, firefighter 代替fireman, leader 代替statesman, mail carrier 代替mailman等。
2)广泛使用词缀person。最为简单地消灭性别歧视的方法之一就是增添新的构词成份person,复数persons, people.如: chairperson, newsperson, salesperson, fisherperson, worker person, house person, marksperson, spaceperson, repairperson, person-trip等。
消灭语言中的性别歧视现象,已成为欧美国家(特别是美国)近年来妇权运动的一项重要内容。而且已初见成效,最为突出的例子要算英语缩略词“Ms.”了。为什么男子不分已婚未婚,只有“Mr.”,而女子却要分已婚的“Mrs.”和未婚的“Miss”呢?女权主义者们认为这便是男女不平等,于时创造了“Ms.”,对已婚未婚女子一律通用,与“Mr.”分庭抗礼。
这种现象其实不难理解,语言中的性别歧视现象是社会生活中性别歧视现象的反映。所以,只要社会上还存在着性别歧视,语言中的性别歧视就难以根除。而且有人认为,人为制造的语言上的男女平等等于现实生活中的男女平等,那简直就是白日做梦。当然必须承认,语言的改变在一定程度上有助于促进社会改变以及人的观念的改变。
参考文献
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第二篇:英语中性别歧视的表现及原因探析
英语中性别歧视的表现及原因探析
胡采华
[摘要] 语言是社会的一面镜子,折射出不同民族的思维方式和价值观念。英语中的性别歧视是一种客观存在的语言现象,是对社会传统和文化反映。本文将从词法、语序、用词与称谓、语义等方面揭示英语中歧视女性的现象并探索其根源。
[关键词] 英语
性别歧视
现象
原因
一、英语中歧视女性的主要表现
1、词法上的性别歧视。从英语的构词就可看出对女性的歧视,代表人类和人类经验的似乎只能是男性。整个人类只属于男人:mankind;国家是由男人统治的:kingdom(虽然英国也曾有女人统治,却没有queendom);从政的是男人:statesman, chairman, etc;有职业的还是男人:salesman, fireman, milkman, postman, businessman, policeman, etc;同族、同胞也只有男人,没有女人:kinsman, countryman;许多国家只有男人存在:Englishman, Frenchman, Irishman, Dutchman。此外,英语中有不少女性名词是由男性化通性词甚至男性词派生而来的,这主要体现在某些职业名词和人名名词中。职业名词本是不带性别标志的词,但后来许多词词义男性化,如governor(州长), major(陆军少校), actor(演员), waiter(服务员),等。若女性从事此类职业,就得在这些词后加上后缀-e,-ess,-ette 等作为性别标志来避免误会,如governess(家庭女教师), majorette(军乐队女队长), actress(女演员), waitress(女服务员)等。与职业名词相似,人名名词也存在着女名派生于男名的现象,即一些女名是在某些男名的基础上加上后缀-e,-ie,-ine 等构成的,如女名Louise(路易丝),Stephanie(斯蒂芬妮)就分别派生于男名Louis(路易斯),Stephen(史蒂芬)。反之,基于女名的男名则实属罕见。女性名词派生于男性化通性词或男性名词的现象反映了女人通常被视为男人的附庸的社会观念,性别歧视昭然若揭。
2、词序上的性别歧视。传统观念认为,不论体力还是智力,都是男强女弱,男性应保护女性,女性只能被男性保护。于是,当两性同时被提及时,词序上总是男前女后,并且不能倒置。如人们常说husband and wife, king and queen, men and women, he and she, Adam and Eve等,很少倒过来说,这只是问题的一个方面。这些词语要是和good and bad, rich and poor, day and light, life and death之类的词语相联系,那就不只是简单的前后位置的问题,其男尊女卑、对女性的歧视可见一斑。客套话“Ladies and gentlemen”是个例外,这是在某些社交场合中使用的固定词序,但它并不意味着妇女地位的提高。古时候,达官显贵们相聚总有夫人陪同,夫人们被视为柔弱之辈,进门出门时男士们总是让她们先走,从而出现了“Ladies first”,后来进而在祝酒或演说时使用“Ladies and gentlemen”。显然,这不过是社交辞令。事实上,人们(包括女性自己)一接触到实质性问题,便把男人摆在前面,让其占主导地位。
3、用词与称谓方面的性别歧视。代词是语言中最有社会意义的词语,也是女权主义者首先发现性别歧视的领域。英语中缺少一个男女兼指的单数人称代词,当泛指男女两性单数时,人们常将阳性人称代词泛化。如:
(1)Everyone has his own right to vote.(人人都有选举权。)(2)Every man has his fault.(人孰无过。)类似的语言现象还表现在当泛指男女两性时,或性别不明时,人们通常使用阳性词。如:
(3)Like other mammals, man nourishes his young with milk.(像其他哺乳动物一样,人类也用乳汁补养后代。)(4)Jane Johnson and her brother Howard both serve as chairman of major committees.(简.1 约翰逊和她的兄长霍华德一同出任大会主席。)显然,第三人称单数男性代词的通行化用法在语法上涵盖女性,在文化上又排斥女性,充满了对女性的歧视。
另一种表现就是对已婚妇女的称谓,即指代上的“不对称”现象。女性结婚以后,不仅失去了从父亲那里继承来的家族姓氏,甚至连自己的名也经常一起丢了,要随丈夫姓,特别是在较为正式的社交场合,对已婚妇女的称谓就是 Mrs.+丈夫 的名+丈夫的姓,如 Mrs.Harry Smith,这表明女性处于无主体的文化语言之中,一切都被纳入男性秩序之内,其价值的存在完全取决于男性的认同和确证.4、语义上的性别歧视。人类从母系社会发展到父系社会,男女角色进行了再分配: “男主外,女主内”,妇女的主导地位也随之失去.男性在社会、政治、经济、文化等一切领域中都占着绝对的主宰地位,而女性的天地则缩小到家庭。我们知道,语言是一种特殊的社会现象,它是从劳动中创造出来的,与人的生产活动有着密切关系。因此,当男性变成语言的主要创造者和使用者时,自然形成了传统中男性的统治地位和女性的附庸地位。上帝在创造人类的时候就把男人放在了统治地位,女子则附属于“他”而存在。这一点在《圣经》中就有明确的记载,男人创造世界,女人只不过是男人身上的一块肋骨(rib),可见女人的地位是何等的卑微。
女性处于被统治、被支配的附庸地位,也就造成了许多“褒阳贬阴”的词汇。譬如bachelor(unmarried man):(快乐的)单身汉/spinster(unmarried woman):(冷漠、古怪、不近人情的)老处女;governor : 统治者、掌权者、总督/governess(受雇于人的)家庭女教师;mister先生,丈夫/mistress受人供养的女人、情妇;warlock巫师(不含贬义)/witch(带有“丑陋、行为古怪”等贬义的)巫婆;sir冠在姓名前为尊称/madam(常用来指妓院的)老鸨;king可引申为有成就的巨子,如钢铁大王/a steel queen其贬义也指妓女。
即使是同一个词,指男性时为褒义,而指女性时就可能变成了贬义。如:professional指男性时是位“有经验的专业人员”,而指女性时则可能含有street girl之意;easy指男性是“容易相处”,而指女性则是“水性扬花”。形容同样性质的人,只是性别不同,用的词汇也会不同,如描绘一个要求严格的男性经理用hard task master,而描绘同样性格的女性经理则用hard to work for;指某个男士易动感情,就说他only human,但如果此人是女士,则用emotional;说一个男士行事果断,用decisive,而一个女士如具有同样的性格,则用stubborn来形容她,等等。久而久之,就形成了男女语言的差异,形成了所谓女性语言的特点。一些专门研究女性语言与男性语言的语言学家指出:由于妇女多愁善感、捉摸不定,性格平淡浅薄,说话声调高尖,没完没了,谈论的内容也大都属于dirty diapers stuff, 因此,把她们的聚会称为hen sessions。从语义看,这些词汇中所包含的性别歧视是一目了然的。
二、英语中性别歧视形成的原因
(一)社会历史分工原因
人类早期社会普遍经历了两个发展阶段,即母系氏族社会和父系氏族社会。在母系氏族社会,妇女在社会经济生活中处于支配地位,因此妇女的社会地位比男性高。但是随着生产力的发展,男子的劳动从捕鱼、狩猎转向农业和畜牧养殖业,男子在体力上比女子强,加上妇女需要花较多的时间和精力养育儿女,于是男子在社会经济中的地位越来越重要,并获得支配权,而妇女的地位与男子相比越来越低,不得不依附于男子,父系氏族社会终于取代了母系氏族社会,这种历史演变必然要反映到语言文字中来。语言是社会的一面镜子,随着社会的变化而变化。在Language and Women‟s Place(语言与妇女的地位)一书中,Layoff曾作过如下评论:最终结果是妇女被剥夺了拥有权利的资格,理由是妇女在她们的言谈举止中处处表现出她们没有掌握权利的能力。具有讽刺意义的是,由于社会的影响,妇女自己也以为她们的智力或受教育程度不如男性,该受到如此对待。因而,Ronald Ward 2 Baugh认为,语言中的性别歧视现象与其说是语言问题,不如说是社会历史分工问题更确切些。
(二)社会文化伦理因素
上帝夏娃带到亚当面前时,亚当说:“这是我骨中骨,肉中肉,我将称她为女人,因为她是从男人的体内取出来的。”(This is now bone of my bone and flesh of my flesh;she shall be called „woman‟, for she was taken out of man.)因此,女性从一开始就是从属于男性的,所以语言中的“性”范畴就将阳性置于首位。夏娃不仅自己偷吃了智慧树上的果实,而且还给其丈夫亚当吃,违反了上帝的禁令,结果被上帝逐出了伊甸园。因此,夏娃对人类的堕落负有不可推卸的责任。古希腊众神之王宙斯,为了报复普罗米修斯为人类盗取火种,创造了美丽动人的少女潘多拉。潘多拉打开了神赐予的装满灾难的禁盒,释放各种罪恶贻害人间。夏娃是犹太教和基督教教义中的第一个女人,潘多拉是希腊神话中的第一个女人,她们都是万恶之源的形象。
在英美国家,晚会上妇女常常被问道 “What does your husband do?”(你丈夫是干什么的?)但是决不会有人冒昧地询问一个男子 “What does your wife do?(”你妻子是干什么的?)如果有人提出这样的问题,被询问的男子一定会很惊异地回答说:(她是我的妻子,妻子就是她的职业)。这说明在西方妇女被放到从属地位已成为一种普遍的社会文化现象。不仅男子接受这种文化现象,女性也从心理上接受了这种从属地位的事实,即使事业上与男性同样杰出的许多女性从心理上讲也是把第一性让给了男性。
(三)政治经济原因
1、经济上妇女有赖于丈夫。在欧洲贵族社会里,贵族们信奉传统的女性有闲论,认为妇女不必工作,她们通过婚姻使自己依附于男子,依靠丈夫的成就建立自己的社会形象。这一传统观念在工业化后的欧美仍很盛行。欧美进入工业社会后,大多数社会成员赖以维持生活的经济收入都必须在工业化、机器化、大集团作业的大社会协作中取得,传统的家庭专业和手工作坊所给妇女的就业机会和稳定收入被取消。这样,多数妇女只好呆在家里,依靠丈夫的经济收入生活。一小部分妇女从家庭转入社会,从事某些工作,但就业机会有限,经济收入微薄。时至今天,一些地位较高和待遇较好的职业依然由男性垄断,妇女的职业地位和待遇大都远逊于男人。更有甚者,有的丈夫不允许妻子外出工作,要她做个相夫教子的家庭主妇与贤妻良母。于是,不少妇女主要充当了性伙伴、生育工具和家庭保姆之类的社会角色。
2、政治上仰鼻息于男人。妇女们由于成了家庭主妇或缺乏经济实力,因而远离政治生活。在男人们制定并颁布施行的美国宪法里,有关众议员、参议员和总统竞选资格的条文起初全用的是。因为宪法里没有,所以当1888年第一个妇女参加总统竞选时,人们觉得无法接受,认为政治应该让女人走开。事实上,在女性人数现在几乎占半的美国,登上政治舞台的女性寥寥无几,不但迄今也没有出现过女总统,就连女众议员、参议员亦少之又少。
女性经济政治地位低下必然反映到语言上,大量性别歧视语也就应运而生了。可以说,女性低劣的经济政治地位是造成英语性别歧视的主要原因。
3、婚姻人身原因。在婚姻家庭中,不少妇女迄今仍居从属地位,在许多方面都附庸于丈夫,在姓氏使用上就是如此。女性婚后一般从夫姓,如夫死未嫁仍用夫姓,再嫁后又得改用后夫之姓,并被称为某某(夫姓)夫人或太太,即使是名门闺秀也不例外。一些妇女试图自由选择姓名,但常会受到司法部门的阻挠或新闻媒体的非难,即使获准可以不用丈夫之姓,也会因此遭受种种不公正的社会待遇。更为头痛的是,她们不得不花费大量时间向其亲友解释自己为何要反对这一习俗。至于婚生子女姓氏,几乎全部生来就随父姓。事实上,女性在社会生活中也只有附庸于男性时才会获得社会地位,而且附庸关系越是法定的,其社会地位就越牢固,即使不是法定的附属关系,有总胜于无。譬如做某个男人的妻子就强于做情妇,而情妇的社会文化意义好于(老处女),因为被人视为在身心某方面不健全。由于现实婚姻 3 中存在人身依附关系,它自然会在语言上有所体现,从而也形成了不少性别歧视语。
三、结语
英语中的性别歧视并不是单独地存在于语言之中,而是扎根于人们的头脑中。语言中所折射出的性别差异和性别歧视并不是由语言符号本身的自然属性决定,而是特定社会的价值观念和民族思维方式在语言中的必然反映(秦秀白,1996:23)。所以,要完全消除语言中对女性的歧视是相当难的,因为作为一种观念,一旦形成了文化价值和传统的一部分,就具有长期的影响力。但是随着社会的进步,妇女的社会地位将进一步提高,语言中的性别歧视现象将会逐步改变。同时也应看到,作为反映历史、文化和传统的语言,其中的性别歧视现象会较长期地存在下去。
参考文献:
[1] Kramsch, Claire.Language and Culture[M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Teaching Press, 2000.[2]R.A.Hudson.Sociolinguistics, Second edition[M].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press,2000.[3]R.Wardhaugh.An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, Third edition[M].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press,2000.[4]白解红.语言多层面上的性别差异[J].湖南:湖南师范大学学报,2000,(4).[5]戴炜栋.言语性别差异分析综述[J].外国语,1983,(6):1-5.[6]罗常培.语言与文化[M].北京:语文出版社,1996.[7]潘建.英汉语言性别歧视的比较研究[J].外语与外语教学,2001,(3).[8]秦秀白.英语中性别歧视现象的历史文化透视[J].现代外语,1996,(2).[9]汪榕培,卢晓娟.新编词汇学教程[M].上海:上海外语教育出版社,1997.
第三篇:浅谈英语语言中性别歧视
浅谈英语语言中性别歧视
中文摘要
性别歧视在不同的社会制度和国家中都不同程度地存在。而作为一种普遍的社会现象,自然会在语言中得到折射。本文介绍了英语中的性别歧视语的种种表现形式,分析了这种现象产生的社会原因和文化根源,并总结了在英语语言运用过程中消除性别歧视的方法。关键词: 英语语言;性别歧视;产生原因;消除方法
Abstract
Sex discrimination exists in all the social systems and countries, and as a common social phenomenon, it is surly reflected in language.This paper lists out different forms of sex discrimination in English, analyses the social and cultural causes of such phenomenon and summarizes the corresponding methods of eliminating sex discrimination in English speaking.Key words: English;sex discrimination;causes;methods of eliminating
引言
在社会生活中,语言对男女一视同仁,但语言是文化的载体,并在人们不断使用的过程中逐渐得到丰富和发展。作为一个地区,一个民族约定俗成的一种表达方式,语言必然会反映出一定的社会价值观念和民族思维方式。性别歧视是以性别为基础而产生的一种社会歧视现象,«朗曼英语词典» 对“性别歧视”的解释是:“以性别为基础的歧视,尤其是男性对女性的偏见。《美国传统字典》的定义是“一种性别成员对另一性别成员,尤其是男性对女性的歧视”。虽然它可以表现为男性对女性的歧视,也可以表现为女性对男性的歧视。但是“性别歧视”通常是对女性的歧视,是人们对女性的偏见和男女社会地位不平等的反映。“女性长期以来被看作是the weaker sex/the second sex,是男性的陪衬和附属品。即使在标榜人权,平等的西方发达国家中也是如此。而现代女权运动轰轰烈烈的发展形势正是对这一不平等现象的反抗和反映。”[1](P80)从而在语言中,出现了多种多样的性别歧视语,英语也不例外。
一、性别歧视语言现象
(一)人际称谓
亲昵称谓
在西方,男性上司称呼他们的女性下属时可以用一些表示亲密关系的昵称,如sugar, darling, sweetie, girlie;反过来,女性下属却不能用这些昵称来称呼她们的上司,而且女性上司也不能如此来称呼她们的男性职员,可是,陌生男子或非亲密关系的男子却可用昵称来称呼女子,这说明在英美社会女性比男性社会地位低,受到的尊重比男性少。[2](P74)姓名称谓
在西方 ,女子婚前一般用父姓 ,婚后改用丈夫的姓 , 例如 :在西方婚礼上 ,新郎新娘步入教堂时 ,牧师宣布:“I now pronounce you man and wife.”“婚后的男子依旧是man ,而婚后的女子则由Miss变成了wife这种现象不乏女权主义者和职业妇女。”[2](P74)当时的美国总统Bill Clinton的夫人Hilary Rodhamon也在为自己的 ,即支持已婚女性不仅
应当标注夫姓 ,而且只应当标注夫姓 ,而不应继续标注父姓。尽管Hilary Rodhamon本人是一位女权运动者 ,但她还是把自己的名字根据丈夫和自己的政治需要, 先从Hilary Rodhamon改为Hilary Rodhamon Clinton, 最后改为Hilary Clinton。但是, 不管怎么改, 都不能超出如下选择: 要么跟父亲姓, 要么跟丈夫姓。这种以丈夫的姓冠之于前的称呼 ,表明妇女出嫁后就成了丈夫的私有财产, 是属于丈夫的, 因此无法得到与丈夫平等的权利。未婚女性用Miss冠以父姓, 已婚的用Mrs.或Lady冠以丈夫的姓氏。
指代称谓
1)提到男女双方时,双方不是处于平等地位,而是男先女后。
King and queen, brother and sister, father and mother, boys and girls, husband and wife, Adam and Eve, man and woman, Mr.Lucas and his wife Louise.2).一些形式上没有男性标志的词意,人们习惯上把它们当作是男性词看待。
英语及其它讲英语国家的人习惯认为 professor, doctor, lawyer, surgeon, barrister, magistrate 等为男性,当我们听到有人说:My cousin is a professor 时,多数人会断定professor为男性。若要说明这些词是女性的,一般可在前面加上woman, lady, female 等 修饰语。如:woman professor, lady doctor, female worker等,这些所谓的中性词的用法从一个侧面反映出旧社会中地位较高的职业为男子所垄断,相反地teacher, nurse , secretary, model 等人们一般认为是女性,如为男性时前面要加上male或是man,如:male nurse, man teacher。这些习惯除了历史现实情况有关,也可以说是一种社会偏见。
(二)词语发展
首先,表面上对应的词,含义却往往褒男贬女在英语中往往通过对女性名词的恶化来达到性别歧视的目的。几乎所有的女性名词都带有贬义,如queen, lady, mistress, madam等,其贬义为“雌猫”、“情妇”、以及“鸨母”等,而与之对应的king, lord, master, father 等词,如将他们的起首字母大写即可升格为“上帝”、“基督”、“主”、“神”等意义。
其次,英语中常用一些动物的名称来指称某些女性。
比如:bat(贱妇,丑妇,妓女);dog(丑妇,贱妇,没有成就的女人,妓女);chicken(见面熟的年轻女人);cat(恶妇,包藏祸心的女人,可卑的女人);cow(子女多的女人,肥胖而不整洁的女人,经常怀孕的女人,妓女);mutton(放荡的女人,做少女打扮的老妇女,妓女)。
并且,英语中还有一些带有轻蔑色彩,专指中老年妇女的词汇。
比如:trot(老太婆);hen(爱管闲事或嘴碎的中年妇女);warhorse(粗声大气,肥胖固执的女人);crone(干瘪皱皮的老太婆);hag(爱做坏事的老丑妇);witch(老丑妇);biddy(长舌妇);harridan(面容枯槁,脾气暴躁的老妇)。
(三)谚语运用
理性类
宋朝黄六鸿《福惠全书,弄名部》载:“妇人水性杨花,焉得不为所动”,诋毁女子“用情不专”,“缺乏理性”,在英语中就有相类似的谚语。
Long hair and short wit.(头发长,见识短)
When an ass climbs a ladder, we may find wisdom in women.(若要女子有才智,除非毛驴攀上树)
言及女子“感情游移”“二三其德”的有:
A woman’s mind and winter wind change a lot.(冬天里的风,女子的心胸---变化异常)
Women, wind and fortune are ever changing.(女子,风向与命运,翻天覆地无常态)
婚嫁类
A fair face is half a portion.(姿色艳,嫁妆半)
When the candles are out, all women are fair.(烛灯熄,无妍女)
Daughters and dead fish are no keeping wares.(女大不中留)
Marry your son when you will, your daughter when you can.(娶媳不忙,嫁女宜速)
There are many good women, it’s true;but they are in their graves.(世上好女实在多,可惜都在坟里卧)
He that has a white horse and a fair wife never wants trouble.(倘若妻俊马俊,一世难得安静)
性情类
一代文豪莎士比亚曾云:“弱者,你的名字是女人”(Frailty, your name is woman)弱女子的典型形象特征是“泪水涟涟”。
Woman is made to weep.(女子生来好哭)
Nothing dries so fast as a woman’s tears.(易干不过女子泪)
Woman is made of glass.(女子脆复弱,象是玻璃货)
Glass and lasses are brittle wares.(少女嫩脆,瓷杯易碎)
(四)职业中的性别歧视
许多表示职业的名词,如engineer ,pilot, scientist ,writer, doctor,pilot, scientist, engineer, pilot等对男女都适用,本来是中性词汇,本身没有性的区别。“由于历史上男性长期占据社会主导地位,人们习惯把它们与男性联系起来。”[3](P210)如要特别指女性从事相同职业时,往往在前面加上female, woman lady, 从而使女性职业名词在外在的形式上呈现出“有标志性”,如woman doctor, female pilot, woman scientist, woman lawyer等。而行业名称冠以男性标记反而不符合语言习惯,但男保姆、男护士除外。只有一些地位较底的职业,如nurse, secretary等,传统上让人联想到女性,而与男性无缘。这种习惯除了与历史和现实有关,也可以说是一种性别歧视。
二、英语语言中性别歧视现象产生的原因
(一)、历史原因
在西方文化传统中,男性一直被认为富于创造力。在《圣经》里,创造世界的耶和华为男性,而耶和华创造的亚当亦是男性,亚当的妻子夏娃只不过是亚当一条肋骨的衍化物,这一传统观念就把创造力固定在男人身上,后人便有了“男性的特质是创造力的天赋”的说法。并且在圣经《创世纪》关于上帝造人的神话成了语言起源学说的联想依据。“在他们看来,既然上帝造
了亚当这天下第一个男人,语言中的“性”范畴就应将阳性置于首位。如果把两者的顺序颠倒过来,就不符合语言习惯。” [4](P132)英语语法并没有规定“先男后女”的语序,但人们在长期的言语习惯中,大都以男为先,女为后,女性只能是跟随在男性后面的第二性别。男先女后的语序是如此常见,以至于反过来如说woman and man ,she or he等则会令人感到不习惯。
(二)、社会原因
性别歧视的根源可以追溯到史前时代男女所扮演的性别角色。由于男性的肌肉比女性肌肉发达,又不生育,于是他们担当起打猎、耕作的角色,妇女体弱、要生育,所以负责照顾孩子、料理家庭、采集食物等。那时,男女角色虽然不同,但还没有一方价值高于另一方的观念。“随着社会生产力的不断发展,男子逐渐从事更多的农业生产活动,占据了主导地位,妇女的地位随供给食物能力的降低而下降。”[5](P113)到了中世纪时期,妇女由于能生养孩子,能为土地所有者生养合法继承人,她们成了地主丈夫的宝贵财产。为了使妇女处于这样的地位,统治者便借助法律令女性屈服和受制于丈夫,于是,各种约束妇女的各种社会规范和习俗开始形成。在漫长的父系社会里,妇女地位低下,依附男性,受制于男性,这种观念逐渐根深蒂固,被人们视为理所当然。直到二十世纪,妇女的地位有了很大的改善,但是社会化偏见是在社会化的过程中,通过社会群体,父母,亲友,伙伴的言传身教和大众传媒(广播,电影,电视,报纸)获得的。人们对女性的歧视和偏见也是从父母,亲友或群体的交往中直接获得的,或通过大众传媒获得的。在英语中,受传统观念的影响,对女性的语言歧视已经成为了一种恶性循环。比如,人们一看到或听到“virgin”和“prostitute”这两个词,首先想到的就是“处女”和“妓女”的意思,而很少想到它们还分别可用于指“处男”和“男娼”。
(三)、生理原因
记的有人写道:在医院的育婴室里,每个刚出生的婴儿的小床上都有说明性别的标记,上面清楚写着:“I am a boy”或“It is a girl”.这里男孩的称呼是I, 而女孩却用it。在婴儿还不知道什么是语言时,而在他们的身上已深深打上了文化和语言的印记。在英语中用男性物主代词his指代包括女性在内的任何人的现象也不胜枚举。例如Has everyone completed his
assignment?还有Everyone should do his best on the exam.这里的his已经包括了女性在内。虽然女性享有就业、选举、教育等等同男性一样的权利,然而女性仍然处于社会的边缘,被认为是“弱者”(the weaker sex)和“他者”(the other);男性始终占据主导地位。” [6](P210)根据1980年的联合国统计,男性拥有世界资源的99%,而女性拥有的资源不到1%。“因此说,对女性的歧视与偏见有长期的社会历史根源。”[6](P219)
三、消除英语语言中性别歧视的方法
随着社会的发展和妇女社会地位的不断提高,尤其是随着美国女权运动的高涨,消除语言中的性别歧视的呼声越来越高。这其中核心问题有两个:如何直接剔除语言中的性别歧视词(sexist words);如何消除第三人称代词泛指而引起的性别歧视问题。我们从英语性别歧视词的转换方式和如何选用恰当的人称代词来消除性别歧视问题的对策这几个方面来进行介绍和讨论。
(一)、性别歧视词转换成无性别歧视词(non-sexist words)的方法尽量使用那些包括两性在内的词,即无性别歧视词,例如:immigrant, voter, officer, coach, church member, grandparent, employee, testee, patriot, customers, dealer, clerk, civilian, politician, tutor, etc.2.以阴性词缀-ess, ette, rix和enne 结尾的词要避免使用并改成无性别歧视的词缀:-or, an, er或ist。例如:actress →actor, administratrix →administrator ,suffragette →suffragist, usherette→ usher ,comedienne→ comedian.3.写信时,如果不知道收信人的具体性别时,最好不要使用传统的Dear Sir, Dear Gentleman, Dear Madam, 可用工作职称代替以免出现差错。例如:Dear friends of the library, Dear Madams and Sirs, Dear personnel officer, Dear Committee Member, Dear Agent, Dear Director.(二)、规避第三人称代词泛指所引起的性别歧视问题的对策
1.采用复数形式
Sexist: When bathing a baby, never leave him unattended.Revised: When bathing a baby, never leave them unattended.2.用We/us/our改写原句
Sexist: From each according to his abilities, to each according to his needs.Revised: From each of us according to our abilities, to each of us according to our needs.3.改用第二人称
Sexist: No man knows his true character until he has run out of gas, purchased something on the installment plan and raised an adolescent.Revised: You don’t know what your true character is until you have run out of gas, purchased something on the installment plan and raised an adolescent.4.改用被动语态
Sexist: One who, when he has the choice of two evils, chooses both.Revised: One who, when given the choice of two evils,chooses both.5.用 he and she/ his and her ,但是使用的次数不宜太多,否则会造成用词累赘。s/he仅仅可以用于备忘录(memos),便条(notes),或者非正式的交谈之中。
6.用名词或上下文中用过的同义词替代
Sexist: To find a friend one must close one eye, to keep him, two.Revised: To find a friend, one must close one eye, to keep a friend, two.7.采用交替使用阳性和阴性来达到平衡
例如:A young child is often persuaded by advertisements to buy what he sees on television.When the child does shopping with a parent, she sees the product on the shelf, remembers it, and asks to have it.(三)、英语教学作用
在英语教学中向学生传授新创立的中性表达法,学校和教师在语言的习得、文化的传授中起着不可低估的作用。改变对女性的否定态度,语言的改革也是重要的一环。语言教师同样也肩负着一份神圣的使命。在英语学习中,教师首先要规范自己的语言,在课堂上尽量避免带有性别偏见的语句。然后,教师根据教学内容把女权运动后英语中出现的新词、新用法传授给学生,有意识地加强性别平等的思想教育,让学生了解英语国家的社会变化、语言动态。应该强调妇女不应该被忽视。女人们每天在生活中仍然发挥着巨大的影响力。没有女人就没有男人的成功。女人们用自己的智慧竭尽全力使每个家庭生活更丰富多彩。
四、结论
在使用上面谈到的方法、对策时,我们一定要把握一个“度”,具体使用那一种方法、对策要取决于它能否使我们的写作、会话顺利进行并达到预期的效果。“正如以前女性主义思想家认为,女性与语言疏远太久,与她们的女性经验疏远太久,使她们不能将自己的经历符号
化。”[7](P331)传统的标准句法和确定的文类都代表父权制话语结构。因此女性主义试图找到新的语言和新的文学形式对女性现实做出反映。她们批评并激烈地改变既存语言,大胆地
进行创作实验,使用新词、新拼写、新语法结构、新意象和新隐喻以远离父权语言的权威结构,为女性寻求一片新的话语空间。女性主义的口号之一就是“妇女通过语言获得完全的解放”。而且,“语言是社会的一面镜子,语言中所折射出的性别差异和性别歧视现象并不是由语言符号本身的自然属性决定的,而是特定社会的价值观念和民族思维方式在语言中的必然反映。”[8](P287)语言本身是中性的,但语言的使用者却可以按照其社会观念和价值观念,赋予语言一定的语用色彩。若要消除语言包括人际称谓系统中的性别歧视现象,首先需根除社会上存在的性别歧视观念,语言的变革只有在社会变革的基础上才能最终实现。
从以上论述可以看到女性要获得自身的真正解放与不平等要做不懈努力。语言对社会的反映 经历了漫长的过程。旧的歧视清除了,新的歧视还会反映到语言中来。语言中性别歧视的真正消除,只能寄希望于在社会现实中,男女真正的平等。“索绪尔认为语言不仅是交际工具,还是思想的载体,没有语言作为载体和工具,人的思维也就无法发展。”[9](P267)性别歧视的改观不能等待男权的施舍,要女性自我的觉醒,要女性自己的参与。在强势和弱势文化的交汇中,同样需要弱势文化自身的努力。强调性别差异的重要性是必要的,但它只是过渡性的,女性不能只作为女性说话,男性也不能只作为男性说话。要走出性歧视的误区,出路在于语言的中性化,而实现语言的中性化,在于不断提高语言觉悟。因此,“女性运动要取得实质性的进展,不是依靠女性自身就能完成的,不仅需要世界范围内广大女性的团结,更需要寻求作为人类另一半的男性的支持与配合,因此更有必要加强与男性的沟通和协商。”[10](P113)
参考文献
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第四篇:论英语中的性别歧视
景德镇陶瓷学院科技
艺术学院
本科生毕业论文(设计)
题目:Sexism in English Vocabulary 学 号: 姓 名: 院(系): 专 业: 完成时间: 指导老师:
CONTENTS Acknowledgements…………………………………………..Abstract in Chinese…………………………………….Abstract in English…………………………………….1.Definition……………………………………………… 2.Sexism in word-formation methods………………..2.1 Suffixes………………………………………….2.2 Sexism in compound words……………………..3.Sxism in Naming and Addressing…………………..3.1 Sexism and Naming……………………………….3.1.1 Sexism in the first names………………..3.1.1.1 Derivation of Female Names from Male Names……..3.1.1.2 Sexism in Semantic Naming of First Names……….3.1.2 Sexism in the family names…………… 3.1.2.1 Patrilineal System of Family Names 3.1.2.2 Change of Female Family Names upon marriage 3.2 Sexism and Addressing……….3.2.1 Sexism in Addressing Terms…..3.2.1.1Female Social Titles upon Relationship with Male…
3.2.1.2 Derogation of Female Honorific Titles…………….3.2.1.3 Abusive Addressing Patterns………………..4.Sexism in Proverb and Slang……………………………..4.1 Sexism in Proverb…………………………………………… 4.2 Sexism in Slang……………………………………… 5.Conclusion……………………………………………………..6.Bibliography……………………………………………………
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My deepest gratitude goes first and foremost to Professor Hou Xiaohua,my supervisor,for her constant and inspiring guidance and encouragement.She has walked me through all the stages of writing of the thesis.Without her constant and illuminating instruction,this thesis could not have reached its present form.Second,i would like to expree my heartfelt gratitude to all the teachers who taught me when i have striving for my Bachelor Degree for their excellent lectures and inspiring ideas.Last, my thanks would go to my beloved family for their loving considerations and great confidence in me all through these years.I also owe my sincere gratitude to my friends and my fellow classmates who gave me their help and time in listening to me and helping me work out my problems during the difficult course of the thesis
摘要
英语不仅是一种语言工具,也是一种意识形态工具。性别歧视这一文化观念反映在语言的词汇学中。牛津高级字典是这样解释的:“不平等的对待人,尤其是对女性,因为她们的性别”。本篇论文将从英语词汇构词法、词义、称谓语及谚语和俚语分析英语词汇中的性别歧视。所以对性别歧视了解的越多,避免的困难也就越多。这是很有实际意义的。关键词:语言;英语词汇;性别歧视
ABSTRACT
English is not only a language tool, but also an ideological tool.Vocabulary of the language can faithfully reflect the culture it serves such as sexism.The oxford advanced learner's dictionary explains it as below: the unfair treatment of people, especially women, because of their sex.This article will discuss sexism that exists in English lexicon in terms of word formation ,word meaning ,naming and addressing terms ,as well as proverb and slang terms.So the more you know it, the better you will avoid trouble.Therefore, the present research has important practical significances.Key words: language;English word;sexism;
1.Definition
Sexism,according to Oxford Advanced Learner‟s English
-Chinese Dictionary is defined as prejudice or discrimination against people(esp.woman)because of their sex;and according to Longman Dictionary of Comtenporary English ,sexism is defined as ideas and believe that menbers of one(usually man)sex are more able and clever than theode of the other sex.It is manifest in all forms of behavior from subtle gestures and especially language to exploitation and oppression,and in all human institutions from the family to the multinational corporation(Paula S.Rothenberg 1988:21). It affirms the dominance of men over women,jnst as Rosemary Radford Ruether(1993:165)holds that“sexism is gender privilege of males over females.It is males primarily who have originated this form of oppression,benefited from it,and perpetuated it,legally and ideologically.”In this sense,it keeps women in second.classstatus,denies them their rights to control their own bodies,and denies personal,mental,and physical safety;it reinforces the false notion that any man who is gentle,flexible,compassionateor gay becomes“feminine”and thereby loses status and respect. 2.Sexism in word formation
Word formation is one of the elements in language from which we can find many examples of sexism.The most obvious one is the word “history”,which it combines words “his”and “story”.It claimed that the history belonged to man not the woman.In general,it is divided in to two categories,adding suffixes and compounding.2.1 Adding suffixes Adding-tress is common among words like ,actress,authoress,sculptress and waitress.Although it sometimes awarded some outlanding achievements of women,the importance of its role isn‟t the same as man.For instance,we usually call a man of a general manager,rather than a general manageress.The highest rank of poet in British is Poet Laureate,which it award to every distinguished poet including both males and females.Howerever,rarly had it probably honored a poet of Poetess Laureate.Word like hostess is widely accepted by people in bar ,which its meaning had been degraded.The same as in the terms of JewessNegrss and Quakeress
The suffix of-ette includes three meanings.The first one aims at small size,such as “cigarette(香烟)” and “kitchenette(小厨房)”.The second level is artifical ,such as “Leatherette(人造皮)”.The third level derives from the last two meanings which discloses the oweakness of woman and subordinates to man.As a result ,it discininates against woman obviously.Woman are unfairly treated.Duing the turn of 19 century and 20 century ,“Suffragette”was frequently used by women who wanted to strive rights for women.However,the public and media used it with derogation.Words like aviatrix(女飞行员),executrix(女执行官)and dominatrix(母夜叉)added the suffix of-trix,which all present an insular prejudice towards women.Women are so weak and fragile that they need obey to men.2.2 Sexism in compound words
In addition to sex discrimination in suffixes,compounding is a good example too.Take word-formationof common words made by “man” and “woman”for example.on one hand,there are a great many words with “man”,like human,policeman,chairman,businessman,sportsman,superman,mankind,postman,Englishman,airman,salesman,clergyman,kinsman,countryman,etc.Even the word “woman”is made up of “man.All these words should refer only to the male,while in fact,the meanings of these words also cover woman,which is obviously unfair to the female.Actually,this kind of words are regarded as masculine words in grammar.According to the point of view in English history,it inherits word-formation principle of Latin and old English in grammar gender.So such kinds of words empasize masculine in word structure.At the sametime,it also stresses that all things are done by the mmale, not the female in practical use.That is quite unfair to the female.On the other hand,in social life,pepole always regard women with discrimination.If a woman is engaged in noble cases,she will face much more difficulties than men.And the following meaning of words also show that the words made up of”woman”mainly emphasize the characteristics of women who are engaged in some kind of profession or belong to a certain of sector.For example,(1)Womankind: female human beings(2)Chairwoman: a woman presiding officer of an assembly meeting,committee or board(3)Womanpower:the power of woman physcial strength(4)Policewoman: a woman who is in a member of a police force(5)Womanhood:the state of being a woman;woman(6)Horsewoman:a woman horseback rider
3.Sexim in Naming and Addressing Spender(1985:24)notes: one of the features of English language practices which are inherently sexist is the use of naming and addressing terms.”Naming and addressing terms play an important role in interpersonal communication.They are continuously used in our daily life hence the social and cultualfactors encoded in them are very valuable for us to explore.3.1 Sexism and Naming
Naming system usually includes first name,middle name and family nam,such as “William Jefferson Clinton”.First name such as”William”in the example,is otherwise known as Chtistian name,forename or given name.Middle name like”Jefferson”in the example occurs betwwen the first name and family name as the second forename,and is usually represented by its capitalized initial letter and is often used in formal occassions.Family name is known as Surname,or last name,which is a name shared in common to identify the mumbers of a family,which is usuallyinheritedfrom the ascending generation on the paternal side,such as‟Clinton”in the example.This part will discuss the sexist phenomena in the first and family name on the basis of the analysis of their semantic features.3.1.1 Sexism in the first names
Giving first name to the infant is one of the most important tasks.First name is truly a lifetime gift from parents;it helps define the children within the family,school and the outside word.Hence an analysis of sexism in first names is very significant.3.1.1.1 Derivation of Female Names from Male Names
In English lots of female names derivate from male names by adding affixes for example,Stephen-Stephanie,Dana-Dana.Affixs play an important role in the formation of female names.After researching affixes used to refer to female in English,Mills(1995:93)claims that those affixes lead to a view of women as a derivation from a male universal norm and the female form is seen as the marked term and the male as the unmarked term.Therefore,it is not a surprise that female names would have some consistent marker bias.Many female names derive of male ones by addingthe suffixes “-a”(or “-ia” due to phonetic reason), “e” and “-line” to them.like Albert and Alberta、、Alex and Alexa、Daniel and Danielle、Gabriel and Gabriell and Paul and Pauline etc.First corresponding with the above, research has shown that male names differ fromfemale ones in two major aspects.Firstly, male names are shorter in spelling than female names according to the research, There are many male names are formed with one syllable such as Jim, Fred, John, Bob and Jack, while only few female names are one syllable.Furthermore, fewer female names have three or more than three syllables, such as Roberta, Victoria and Amand.Part of the explanation of this study lies in the fact that many female names are originated from male names by adding one or more syllables.Secondly, male names are phonologically different from female ones.This thesis finds that majority of male names are ended with consonant phonetic symbol in which some male names end with the stops [d], [t], [k] such as Robert, Richard, Jack;while only two femalenames do, namely, Brooke and Jade.However, most of female names analyzed endedwith a vowel [i], [i:], [ə], such as Mary and Anna, but only a few male names do so.Cutler argues(1990: 476), “Small vocal tracts such as [i], [i:], [ə], which producehigh-pitched sounds, are typically possessed by smaller, weaker, less threateningbeings.” Therefore, the frequent use of [i] in such female names as Tracey, Mary andBonnie, and [ə] in Rita, Selina and Lisa, reflects “smallness and lack of threat are heldto be desirable attributes of females”.Theoretically, the practice of deriving female names from male ones forms the contrast in which men are dominant and women are subordinate in society and meanwhile it is in accordance with the belief in Bible that woman was created from a rib of man.3.1.1.2 Sexism in Semantic Meaning of First Names
The names that people give their children show the hopes and dreams they have for them and also reflects their parents‟ hope and expectations for their children.So from their first names,we can know the different attitudes of parents to boys and girls.First names for girls and boys often reflect stereotyped features of feminity or.masculinity prevailing in a particular culture or society.It is undeniable that first names contain various connotations and this thesis will make an effort on the sexism in name‟s connotation In our society the vast majority of first names carry clear feminine or masculine connotations.People no matter in the East or West attach great importance to marking the child‟s sex when choosing a name for him or her.And in baby naming book, there might be two lists: one for girls and another for boys.According to it, parents are recommended to choose a name that identifies the child‟s sex.Besides marking the sex of the child, first names for girls and boys often reflect stereotyped features of femininity and masculinity prevailing in culture.More female names contain the connotation associated with appearance while more male names contain connotation associated with wealth, power, wisdom and intelligence.It reflects the sexist expectaton that male should improve internal quality and female should pay more attention to external beauty.3.1.2 Sexism in Family Names
Family names are passed down from generation to generation, it symbolizes the blood relationship and development of a family.From the way of giving family names, it is not difficult to find the sexism.3.1.2.1 Patrilineal System of Family Names
When women were born, they were given their fathers‟ name and adopted their husbands‟ names upon marriage.It‟s only sons who carry on their fathers‟ name forever, whereas women lost this capacity when they got married.This stresses the portrayal of women as the prosperity of men, passed from father to husband.They just have no freedom to own their own names.US Senator Hilary Clinton.Either way she names herself after a man- her father or her husband, or both.Children typically inherited their fathers‟ rather than their mothers‟ family names, which enables fathers but not mothers to achieve a direct continuity of naming from generation, provided they have sons.Even if there are only daughter, however the derivation of female forms from male names enables the transmission to continue.It‟s very common for women in English-speaking countries to adapt their husbands‟ names upon they got married.Thus women are said to“marry into families and families are sad to „die out‟ if an all-female” generation occurs.Thus, Spender comments:“Practically”, it means that women‟s family names don‟t count and there is one more device making women invisible.”
In the ceremony, the, the official asks,“ Who gives the bride away?”and the father answers.“I do”, or “Her mother and I do”, but that does not solve the problem inherent in the idea that a bride is something to be handed over from one man to another.3.1.2.2 Change of Female Family Names upon Marriage
When a woman is referred with her husband‟s name, as in “Mrs.John Smith”, she is rendered both subordinate and invisible.For example, when a woman named Helen Keller marries to a man named John Fords, She is submerged by being called Mrs.John Fords.Even the woman is of high social status;it is the same with her.One of the candidates in 2008 Presidential Election of the United States of America, Hilary, the former president of Bill Clinton‟s wife, kept her maiden name “Hilary Rodham” after marriage.But in order to help her husband in the election, she had to change her names.Though allegedly a feminist, she has shifted between naming herself Hilary Rodham, Hilary Rodham Clinton and Hilary Clinton.Despite the fact that some countries no longer legally require for women to adopt their husband‟s names upon marriage, women who do not conform to this practice still face many practical and attitudinal obstacles.3.2 Sexism and Addressing
3.2.1 Sexism in Addressing Terms Addressing term is a mark that indentifies the relationship of people in social activities, which can present our ideal and social ties.It is used frequently in the communication.According to different criteria, address forms can be divided into different classifications.They can be divided into: social titles, occupational titles, endearments, abusive terms,kinship terms etc.3.2.1.1 Female Social Titles upon Relationship with Male Mr、Miss and Mrs are used frequently when we refers to address someone in social communication.All adult men are called Mr, however women have different addressing terms after they get married.As we know, marriage and age is private.The title of Mrs indicates that women are reluctant to disclose his marriage condition, which is unfair to women.In addition to this ,when adapting the Mrs, her family names do not belong to her own ,but her husbands‟.“Iron Lady” Margaret Thatcher and Nobel Prize Lady Marie Curie did not change this condition.These two famous persons still surbodinated to men.人们在社会交往中称呼某个男性或女性个体时,最常使 用的是Mr、Miss 和Mrs。对所有成年男性都统称为Mr,而对于 成年女性则有已婚和未婚的不同称谓。众所周知,婚姻和年龄 一直都是涉及到个人隐私的话题,而Mrs.这一称谓公开宣布 了女性不愿意表明的婚姻状况,让女人永远都得不到和男人 能够平起平坐的对待。更有甚者,当使用Mrs.的时候,女性使 用的不是自己的姓氏,取而代之的是丈夫的姓,表明自己已经 嫁给了某人,即使是一代名相“铁娘子”撒切尔夫人和诺贝尔 物理奖的居里夫人也没有改变这种现象,这两位女强人虽闻 名世界却仍旧摆脱不了被的问题。这一语言现象正
是由于人们认为男人是世界的主宰,而女人只是男人的附属
3.2.1.2 Derogation of Female Honorific Titles
In the male-orienated society, people honor high stature to men solely, for instance chairman、spokesman and policeman.However when woman gets achievements in her career, she will be regarded as an example.Such as words, doctor、lawyer can both designate the same state or condition as it did for men.However,it is a convention for people classifying them into male-dominated society.for example, “master” and “mistress”.In an earlier society, master and mistress were simple male-female equivalents meaning “one who has control over or ownership of something or has control over another or others”.With the changing of society, “master” now generally refers to a man who has power over others or who has acquired skills in some field.But its feminine counterpart cannot be used in this way.It is practically restricted to its sense of “paramour”, a woman who a man has a sexual relationship with, but is not married to.For example, “He is a master of intricacies and academic politics”, and “Catherine declined to be his mistress, and returned to her husband”.3.2.1.3 Abusive Addressing Terms for Female
Abusive terms of address are unfriendly and insulting terms to address others;convey quite unpleasant affections.There are two major types of words that are most likely to serve as abusive addressing terms which females are humiliated.Examples of the first type are: “wanton” is used to address a woman who is immoral, lewd, and unchaste.The second type are associated with such words as ass, pig, rat, tigress, duckie, shrew, turkey, cow, goat which is closely connected with the figurative meanings of such foods, plants and animals.A.Foods The food terms have not escaped the process of derogation, which often associated with women show women‟s passive image and subordinate status.The following are some examples: cheesecake—a picture of a naked lady;dumpling—short and fat women;mutton—indicating an elderly lady dressed up as a young girl in “mutton dressed(up)as lamb”;
sweet-pie—a mistress;tart—a prostitute or women behave frivolously or a woman considered to be sexually;B.Plants
Plants names are involved in addressing male or female.But the semantic prototype of male is a gigantic tree while that of female is flowers.Plants names are used to address females, they often have insulting meaning as follows: clinging vine—a woman who overly depends on a man emotionally;shrinking violet—a shy woman;wall flower—a woman who has no one to dance with.C.Animals
When you use an animal name for a female, usually they are smaller animals like “kitten”, “bunny”, “chick” which are more likely to become pejorative;and others like “chicken”, which more likely to acquire sexual suggestions.Male, however, are referred to as being a tiger, moose, or even as a bear to show aggressive masculine attribute and dominance to female.When you use an animal name for a female, usually they are smaller animals like “kitten”, “bunny”, “chick” which are more likely to become pejorative;and others like “chicken”, which more likely to acquire sexual suggestions.Male, however, are referred to as being a tiger, moose, or even as a bear to show aggressive masculine attribute and dominance to female.The following are examples:(a)For females bitch—a woman considered to be spiteful or overbearing or a lewd woman;butterfly—a showy or frivolous person(esp.a female);cat—a malicious or spiteful woman or an evil woman;chicken—prostitutes;(b)For males
goat—an old man who is sexually active or a lecherous man;loin—a brave, strong, or fiercely cruel person(usu.of males);tiger—a fierce, determined person(esp.males);wolf—a man given to paying unwanted sexual attention to women or a satyr.From the example discussed above, we could conclude that names of foods, plants and animals used to address female are sexist, because most of them humiliate female from the perspectives of appearance, personality and identity and meanwhile imply that female is inferior to male or easy to be obtained by male.4.Sexism in English proverbs
English proverbs reflect the social customs and cultural perceptions of the English-speaking countries.Since sexism is embodied in human culture, English proverbs unavoidably reflect sexist discrimination.This essay penetrates into sexism in English proverbs from three perspectives, namely status, personality flaws, and demands on women.4.1 Sexism in English proverb There are many proverbs that indicate women‟s low condition in society and her vulnerability in family.The following examples are classified into three kinds a.Social status and family status Man, woman and devil are three degrees of comparison.(男人、女人和魔鬼,三个等级分贵贱。)If the husband be not at home, there is nobody.(丈 夫不在家,等于说没人。)
A woman‟s advice is never to seek.(女人的建议一文 不值。)A woman of no birth may marry into the purple.(夫荣 妻贵。)A woman, a dog and a walnut tree, the more you beat them, the better they‟ll be.(拳脚之下出好妻,棍棒之下 有义犬,胡桃敲打多结果。)A man is a man though he have/has but a hose on his head.(家贫袜当帽,仍是男子汉。)A man of straw is worth of a woman of gold.(稻草男 儿抵得上金玉女子。)A fair face is half a portion.(姿色颜,嫁妆半。)Since the acient time ,women were suppressed under the low social status and suffered a lot.They subordinated to men and acted as an animal for men beating.b.vulnerability characteristic(1)Women are fragile
Frailty , thy name is woman.(脆弱啊,你的名字是女 人。)Woman is made to weep.(女人生性爱流泪。)A woman and a glass are ever in danger.(女人易毁,玻璃易碎。)A woman is the weaker vessel.(女人是易碎的器皿。)It is no more pity to see a woman weep than to see a goose go bare foot.(女人哭如鹅光脚走路,根本不值得可怜。)(2)Women are changeable.A woman is a weather cock.(女人是风向标。)A winter weather and women’s thoughts change oft.(秋 天的云,女人的心—变化莫测。)Women are wavering as the wind.(女人心思犹如风之多 变。)There’s nothing sooner dry than women’s tears.(什 么也没有女人的眼泪干得快。)(3)Women are noisy and troublesome.A woman’s tongue is the last thing about her that dies.Where there are women and geese, there wants no noise.(哪有鹅和女人,哪不缺喧闹声)Foxes are all tail and women are all tongue.Three women and a goose make a market.(三个女人一只 鹅,市场里面闹哄哄。)A woman’s tongue wags like a lamb’s tail.(女人饶 舌如同羔羊摆尾。)Words are women, deeds are men.(女人的嘴巴,男人的 行动。)
(4)Women are deceptive, pretentious and evil.Every woman would rather be beautiful than good.(女 人爱美不重德。)Tell a woman she is fair, and she will soon turn fool.(跟女人讲她长得漂亮,很快她就会晕头转向。)Bad woman are worse than bad men.Trust not a woman, when she weeps.Bad women can do more than the devil.Women are the devil’s nets.(女人是万恶之源。)There is no devil so bad as a she-devil.(魔鬼当中女 人最坏。)3.Traditonal requirments The smell of an onion from the mouth of the lovely is sweeter than that of a rose in the hand of the ugly.(美女口中葱蒜臭,胜过丑女手中玫瑰香。)Husbands are in heaven whose wives scold not.(老婆 不唠叨,丈夫就像生活在天堂里。)A simple maiden in her flower is worth a hundred coats of arms.(正值芳龄的纯洁少女值一百枚勋章。)Beauty without virtue is like a rose without scent.(美而无德犹如花无香味。)Silence is the best ornament of a woman.(女子文静,不须治容。)Maidens should be mild and meek, swift to hear, and slow to speak.(少女尚温柔,多听慢开口。)Modesty is the ornament of women.(稳重为妇女增美。)A good wife and health are a man’s best wealth.(贤 妻与健康是丈夫最佳财富。)从古至今,女性都处在被观赏和被品位的地位,在男性占主 导的社会中,女性被要求既要上得厅堂,又要下得厨房,既要有 貌,又要有德,既要纯洁,又要贤淑。
第五篇:试析英语谚语中的性别歧视
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《宠儿》的黑人女性主义解读(开题报告+论)77 《喜福会》中的象征主义
American Individualism and Its Reflection in the Film Erin Brockovich 79 浅析苔丝悲剧命运的形成原因
The Emerging Tendency of Marketing—Network Marketing 81 A Study on the Cross-Cultural Management in the Sino-American Joint-Venture Enterprises--With Special Reference to Changan & Ford Motor Company 82 英语词汇中的性别歧视 83 中华民族主义的新表现:“中国威胁论”——构建民族认同的一种手段 84 An Analysis of Hamlet’s Delay of Revenge in Hamlet 85 布什总统演讲词中幽默话语的语用功能分析 86 浅析《小妇人》中乔的女性意识及其成长过程 87 Demystification of Model Minority Theory 88 浅析汉英翻译中中式英语的现象 89 多媒体技术在早期英语教育中的应用
网络流行语翻译评析——“神马都是浮云”个案分析 91 剖析托尼•莫里森笔下的黑人世界 92 科技英语语篇中的语法隐喻研究
A Comparison of the English Color Terms 94 Translation Strategies of Chinese-specific Idioms 95 《乞力马扎罗的雪》中的象征手法解析 96 从自然主义角度解读《苔丝》的悲观主义 97 从《喜福会》母女代沟看中西文化冲突
The Impact of Gender Differences on Language Learning Strategies 99 欧内斯特•海明威《雨中猫》和田纳西•威廉斯《热铁皮屋顶上的猫》中的女主人公的对比分析
《本杰明•富兰克林自传》和《嘉莉妹妹》美国梦的对比研究 101 对《大地》中女性人物的生态女性主义解读 102 DOTA游戏英雄名称汉译策略
The Comparison of Diet Culture between China and America 104 从目的论看《红楼梦》中成语的翻译 105 公示语英译错误分析
论《傲骨贤妻》字幕翻译中的归化和异化策略 107 中西方对鬼怪认识的差异
归化和异化策略在《红楼梦》文化负载词翻译中的应用 109 探析国际贸易中的跨文化风险
非英语专业学生学习英语的动机和策略调查 111 图式理论在高中英语阅读中的运用
电影《苔丝》的缺失——与原著《德伯家的苔丝》的比较 113 对《愤怒的葡萄》中圣经原型的分析 114 论英汉植物词语的文化附加义 115 论模糊限制语在广告中的语用功能
On Alice Walker’s Womanism in The Color Purple 117 试析《假如明天来临》的叙事艺术
The Analysis of the Double Character of Wuthering Heights’ Hero——Heathcliff 119
On the Disposal of Cultural Differences in the Translation 121 A Reflection upon American Heroism Based on Reviews of Hollywood Movies 122 奥斯卡.王尔德的美学观点及其在《道连格雷的画像》中的体现 123 从《艾玛》看简奥斯汀小说中的对话运用 124 提高学生说英语的兴趣和能力 125 英汉新词形成因素研究
影响中学生英语学习的心理因素分析 127 鼓励性教学方法在中学英语教学中的应用 128 浅谈在华跨国公司的本土化策略
从《去吧,摩西》中的“熊”看福克纳对人性的探讨
失败的逃亡—从《麦田守望者》中主人公的逃亡看个人意识对社会的超越 131 网络语言特色分析
论《野性的呼唤》的多重主题 133 新加坡英语和英国英语比较研究
英语毕业论文)从利益最大化的角度分析商务谈判中的报价策略 135 奈达“功能对等”理论在中国电影片名英译中的运用分析 136 An Analysis of Gothic Features in Poe’s The Cask of Amontillado 137 中美个人理财规划的对比分析
On the Translation of Children’s Literature in the Light of the Skopostheory:A Case Study of The Adventures of Tom Sawyer 139 从电影《刮痧》看东西方文化差异
Study of the Translation of Flower Image in Chinese Classical Poetry 141 初中英语课堂教学师生互动有效性研究 142 诗歌《飞鸟集》的意象评析 143 论大学英语口语课外活动
A Contrastive Analysis of Chinese and English Address Terms 145 An Interpretation of Initiation Theme in Heart of Darkness 146 《傲慢与偏见》中的婚姻
Symbolic Meanings of Babel in The Dogs of Babel 148 A Study on Subtitle Translation of Legal Films 149 从《红字》看霍桑的道德思想观
On the Integrative Use of Multiple Teaching Methods in Middle School English Class 151 论企业对员工过度压力的管理
152 从《一间自己的房间》看弗吉尼亚•伍尔夫的女性主义 153 英文谚语的文化场景在中译文中的缺失与弥合 154 《了不起的盖茨比》—美国梦的破灭 155 毛泽东诗词中典故翻译的对比研究 156 从文化角度看中美家庭教育的差异 157 英文电影中俚语的翻译策略
158 两种文化中不同的生存希望——以电影《肖申克的救赎》和《活着》人物命运分析为例
159 跨文化视角下研究英汉民俗词语的不等值翻译 160 中式英语成因之分析 161 英语语言中的性别歧视
162 浅谈文化差异对国际商务谈判的影响及对策 163 温和的反叛者——论《小妇人》中的女性群像 164 论《荆棘鸟》中的女性意识 165 跨文化背景下的广告翻译技巧 166 文化负迁移对翻译的影响
167 高中英语写作中母语负迁移现象分析
168 A Comparative Study of Inversion between English and Chinese 169 中美篮球背后的青年文化 170 论《看不见的人》的主人公的心理成长历程
171 天鹅的涅槃——以跨文化交际的角度解读《喜福会》中母女关系 172 浅析爱伦坡《乌鸦》的语音象征 173近年来汉语中英语借词的简析
174 《愤怒的葡萄》中圣经的象征和隐喻
175 从王尔德喜剧中的花花公子形象解读王尔德信奉的纨绔主义 176 英汉基本颜色词的文化内涵对比及其翻译
177 《红字》中的丁梅斯代尔和齐灵渥斯谁更“恶”?
178 生命不息,奋斗不止——海明威小说中的英雄伦理观和英雄形象研究 179 比较《百万英镑》和《阿Q正传》 180 超音段特征对意义的影响 181 中英文化差异与翻译策略
182 新闻英语中的委婉语及其翻译策略 183 试析英语谚语中的性别歧视
184 简•奥斯汀《诺桑觉寺》中人物对爱情和婚姻的不同态度 185 浅谈商标的特点及其翻译 186 试论英语学习中的动机
187 试究中国古诗词英译中的常用技巧—以《发如雪》为例
188 A Thousand Splendid Suns: from the Perspective of Initiation Story 189 企业英文简介中的概念语法隐喻分析
190 以马斯洛需求层次理论分析《傲慢与偏见》中的爱情婚姻观 191 试析中英婚姻生活差异及其原因 192
193 紫色中女人意识的觉醒
194 论礼貌制约下You-attitude在英语商务信函中的用法 195 跨文化交际中的中西方时间观念
196 跨文化交际中英语副语言的表现和交际功能
197 从《悲悼三部曲》看尤金•奥尼尔对古希腊悲剧的继承性超越 198 论D.H.劳伦斯诗歌中的救赎意识 199 《呼啸山庄》的哥特式传统