第一篇：英语中的性别歧视及女权运动对其的影响
英语中的性别歧视及女权运动对其的影响
【摘要】性别歧视是长期存在的一个社会问题，语言作为社会的产物在词汇及表达方式等方面也广泛的反映了这一歧视现象。随着女权运动的发展，女性自身独立平等意识的觉醒，女性主义者开始努力清除语言中的性别歧视现象并取得了一些成就。
【关键词】英语 性别歧视 女权运动
一、引言
语言学中对语言的定义是：language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.(《新编语言学教程》 刘润清，文旭)从这个定义可以看出，语言本身只是一个客观存在，是人们用于实现交流的工具。然而语言是社会发展的产物，必然具有社会性，能够反映出人们的观念与思想。几千年来，男性一直处于统治地位而女性则一直作为男性的附庸而存在，因而形成了长期的男尊女卑思想，语言对此的反映便是形成了大量以男性为主导的词汇及表达方式，女性却遭到了忽视或歧视。丹麦语言学家Otto Jesperson在1923年出版的Growth and Structure of the English Language一书中指出:“英语是他所熟悉的所有语言中最男性化的语言”.然而随着女权运动的发展，女性主义者对于这一现象再也不能容忍，“20世纪70年代，一个耳熟能详的呼声是：女性必须获得语言的解放，女性的解放必须先从语言着手”(simon，1996)于是女性主义者们为了消除语言中对女性的歧视做了很大的努力也取得了一定的成绩。本文将从一下几个方面探究英语中对女性的歧视现象及女权运动对改变这种歧视的影响。
二、英语中对女性的歧视的表现
1.从性别标记中看性别歧视
(1)首先，在具有性别区分特征的一对对应词中，阳性名词一般是无标记的，而阴性名词一般是在阳性名词后加词缀构成，是有标记的。如在prince 和 princess，hero和heroine，usher和usherette ••• 这些成对的对立项中，阴性名词是通过在阳性名词的后面加上-ess，-ine，-ette这些词缀构成的，可以说是依附于阳性名词派生而成，因此处于阳性名词的从属地位，这是性别歧视在语言中的一个体现。
(2)其次，一些地位较高的职业名词在描述男性时是无标记的，是常用的，普通的，但用来表示这一职位的女性时却要加上“female，woman，lady”等这些女性标记，如果不加就会被认为此人是男性。请看下面一个小故事：
A young man and his father are in an auto accident;the father is killed and the young man is rushed to the hospital.The surgeon，upon entering the room and seeing the patient，exclaims，“oh my god，I can’t operate;it’s my son!”
经过调查，大部分人读完后的第一反应是感到迷惑“为什么这个男孩有两个爸爸”，这是因为在人们的意识中，surgeon是男性才是比较普遍的现象，如果要说明是女外科医生则必须在前面加上female.相反，一些社会地位比较低的职业名词，它的无标记形式却是表示女性，如果要用来指男性则要加上“male，man”如nurse，secretary，elementary school teacher等。
由此可见，在人们的心目中，体面的职业似乎是男性专有的，女性从事卑微的职业才是正常。而一旦女性在某些高端的领域取得了一些成就，从事了地位较高的职业，就要被加上女性标记，以示特殊。
(3)此外，无标记的阳性名词和代词适用范围比有标记的阴性名词大得多。在actor和actress，brotherhood和sisterhood，poet和poetess，men和women，he和she，his和her •••这些成对的对立项中，阳性名词都既可以指男性又可以指女性，而阴性名词则只可以指女性.又如： Men are smarter than animals意思是“人类比动物聪明”但如果改成 Women are smarter than animals 就会被理解成“女人比动物聪明”而没有将男人包括在内。无标记的阳性名词甚至可以做统称词，如mankind指人类(男人这一类人就可以代表整个人类，那女人这个类别的意义何在呢？)，manpower指“人力”，manmade指“人造的”，这些词都忽略了女性在社会发展中所发挥的作用，体现了男性在语言中的主导地位，带有明显的性别歧视意味。
2.从词序中看性别歧视。当表示男女的词成对出现时，总是把男性词放在前面。如boys and girls，brother and sister，son and daughter，husband and wife …笔者在本文列举有标记的对应词时也不可避免的采用了这个顺序。这是因为虽然并没有人规定一定要遵循“先男后女”的规则，但由于男性在社会与文化中一直处于主导地位，自然在语言中也要居于首位，于是先男后女便成了一种语言习惯。如果把顺序颠倒过来，变成girls and boys，wife and husband反而会让人觉得别扭(ladies and gentlemen特例)
3.从相同的词或一组对应词中看性别歧视
(1)相同的词用于男性和女性会出现不同的意思，而且通常对女性含有贬义。如：
1)Man on the street行人，一般人
Woman on the street妓女
2)he is professional 指某位男性是某个领域的专家，有一定的专业技能，从事社会地位较高的职业。
She is professional 则指某位女性是性工作者(妓女)
(2)一个用于形容女性的词用在男性身上通常会变成贬义，相反，一个用于形容男性的形容词来形容女性则通常是褒义。如lovely，pretty等形容女性时有可爱，漂亮之意，而用来修饰男性就有了轻蔑，取笑的意思。相反，如果用handsome来修饰女性则丝毫没有贬义，反而有称赞某位女士处事潇洒，外形帅气的意思。
(3)在男女对应的一组词中，描述女性的词一般带有贬义，如master指“男主人”，与之对应的mistress却有“情妇”的意思；bachelor和spinster各用来指男女单身者，但是bachelor是一个中性词，其单身是个人选择的结果，在某些文学作品中甚至还隐含“有吸引力”的意思，而spinster就带有贬义了，意为嫁不出去的老处女。
4.比喻中的性别歧视。在某些比喻中以女性或女性特点做喻体时往往带有贬义，表明了社会对女性的歧视与偏见。例如“he is like a woman.”会被理解成某位男士不够勇敢，不够强壮，做事扭捏等一系列轻蔑的意思。又如法国著名作家吉尔梅纳日批评当时一些翻译家不顾原文风格，随意发挥，一味追求译文华丽时，称其为“不忠的美人”，而不是“不忠的美男”，这是因为女性已经被预设为卑怯，柔弱，善变等一系列特征，将女性视为次要的，派生的，第二性的，被动的，依赖的，也体现了了对女性的歧视。
5.称呼中的性别歧视。在人际交往中一般将未婚女子称为MissX，称已婚女子为Mrs.X，而男性不管结婚与否都被称为Mr.X，他们的婚姻状况不会在称呼中反应出来。并且女子结婚后要随夫姓，如Jane Smith 嫁给了Tom Johnson，她就会被称为Mrs.Johnson，而Tom却不用改为Mr.Smith，她仍然被称为Mr.Johnson.也就是说女性在结婚后便是依附与丈夫而存在了。
6.谚语中的性别歧视.谚语作为一种口耳相传的特殊语言形式，反映了一定时期人们的思想意识形态和生活习俗，因此长期以来的性别歧视现象必然也会在谚语里体现。如：
(1)“A woman，a dog and a walnut tree，the more you beat them，the better they will be.”
(2)“M a n，woman and devil are three degrees of comparison.”
(3)“If the husband be not at home，there is nobody.”
(4)“A woman’s tongue wags like a lamb’s tail.”
(5)“Long hair，short wit.”
(1)(2)(3)体现了女性地位的地下。她们被与动物和植物相比，被随意打骂；处于次要地位，被视为男性的附庸；被忽视，不被视为社会的一份子。(4)(5)则体现了男性对女性的轻蔑与嘲笑，女性善于与人交流无可厚非却被拿来与羊羔的尾巴相比；以前的女性没有受教育的机会却被嘲笑成头发长见识短，而这个俗语至今仍被使用。
三、女权运动对语言的影响
语言作为社会发展的产物，自然也会随着社会的发展而发展。20世纪以来的妇女运动促进了女性自身意识的觉醒和素质的提高，女性主义者也在消除语言中的性别歧视中做了很大的努力并取得了一些进步。
1.由于圣经中有着大量的关于男性主导而女性是男性附庸的表述，女性主义者为征得在基督教中应有的位置便从女性角度重新阐释和翻译了《圣经》，迄今已有十多种不同版本的中性或兼顾两性的《圣经》英译本。
2.清除语言中的性别歧视也得到了政府和法律的支持。1975年英国政府出台了the sex discrimination act，规定官方不得适用含有明显性别歧视的词语。英国就业委员会也立法规定招工广告用语的中性化要求：
(1)慎用“salesman”，“store man”等词，确保两性都有平等的就业机会。于是男性化的词语普遍转为中性词，例如，“salesman―sales assistant”，“store man―store assistant”。
(2)如果招工广告含“he、she、him、her”等词，要保证使用兼顾两性的“he or she” 和“him or her”等选择形式。
(3)机械师、打字员和餐厅服务员的职位不可偏向一个性别，“Waiter Require”属于违法广告，应改为“Waiter or Waitress Require”
3.一些中性词代替了男性词。如salesman，chairman policeman，he，manmade等男性主导的词分别由salespeople，chairperson，police officer，they，artificial 等无性别区分意义的词代替。
4.出现了男性词平行的女性词。如Ms代替了Miss和Mrs.成为与Mr，有相同地位的词，类似的还有statesman―stateswoman，sportsman―sportswoman，spokesman――spokeswoman，congressman―― congresswoman，housewife― house husband，hero―― shero等。
5.女子结婚后不一定要随夫姓。随着女性主义思想的广泛传播与发展，许多夫妇结婚以后不再采用旧的称呼方法，而是夫妇双方将姓氏结合起来作为两人新的共同姓氏，如Jane Smith 嫁给了Tom Johnson以后，Jane不再改姓Johnson，而是两人分别改成Jane Smith-Johnson和Tom Smith-Johnson.这一方法在美国已经被很多人采用。
四、结语
英语语言本身并无感情色彩，但作为社会发展的产物，它必定能够反映出一定时期人们的思想观念。正如秦秀白在1996年的一篇文章中写到：“语 言是 社 会 的 一 面 镜 子……语 言 本 身是 清 白无 辜的，但 语 言 的 使 用 者 却 可 以按 照 其社 会 观 念和 价 值 观 念 赋 予语 言 一 定的 语 用 色彩。” 英语中的性别歧视现象实际上反映了千百年来女性处于男性的统治之下，得不到应有的尊重和权力，反而饱受轻蔑与歧视的社会现实。虽然随着女权运动的发展，英语语言中的性别歧视现象有所消除，但要实现彻底清除其对女性的歧视还需要从人们的观念入手。只有根除社会上存在的性别歧视观念，消除语言中的歧视现象才有可能实现。
参考文献：
[1]秦秀白.英语中性别歧视现象的历史文化透视――评介Grammar and Gender[J].现代外语.1996(02).[2]贺显斌.翻译话语中的性别问题浅探[J].外语与外语教学.2003(10).[3]刘润清,文旭.新编语言学教程[M].外语教学与研究出版社.2006(08).[4]苗兴伟.从标记理论看英语中的性别歧视[J].四川外国语学院学报(重庆).1995(03).[5]穆凤良,李秀萍.英语中的性别歧视与中性化[J].外语与外语教学.1998(05).
第二篇：浅谈英语语言中性别歧视
浅谈英语语言中性别歧视
中文摘要
性别歧视在不同的社会制度和国家中都不同程度地存在。而作为一种普遍的社会现象，自然会在语言中得到折射。本文介绍了英语中的性别歧视语的种种表现形式，分析了这种现象产生的社会原因和文化根源，并总结了在英语语言运用过程中消除性别歧视的方法。关键词: 英语语言；性别歧视;产生原因；消除方法
Abstract
Sex discrimination exists in all the social systems and countries, and as a common social phenomenon, it is surly reflected in language.This paper lists out different forms of sex discrimination in English, analyses the social and cultural causes of such phenomenon and summarizes the corresponding methods of eliminating sex discrimination in English speaking.Key words: English;sex discrimination;causes;methods of eliminating
引言
在社会生活中，语言对男女一视同仁，但语言是文化的载体，并在人们不断使用的过程中逐渐得到丰富和发展。作为一个地区，一个民族约定俗成的一种表达方式，语言必然会反映出一定的社会价值观念和民族思维方式。性别歧视是以性别为基础而产生的一种社会歧视现象，«朗曼英语词典» 对“性别歧视”的解释是：“以性别为基础的歧视，尤其是男性对女性的偏见。《美国传统字典》的定义是“一种性别成员对另一性别成员，尤其是男性对女性的歧视”。虽然它可以表现为男性对女性的歧视，也可以表现为女性对男性的歧视。但是“性别歧视”通常是对女性的歧视，是人们对女性的偏见和男女社会地位不平等的反映。“女性长期以来被看作是the weaker sex/the second sex，是男性的陪衬和附属品。即使在标榜人权，平等的西方发达国家中也是如此。而现代女权运动轰轰烈烈的发展形势正是对这一不平等现象的反抗和反映。”[1](P80)从而在语言中，出现了多种多样的性别歧视语，英语也不例外。
一、性别歧视语言现象
（一）人际称谓
亲昵称谓
在西方，男性上司称呼他们的女性下属时可以用一些表示亲密关系的昵称，如sugar, darling, sweetie, girlie;反过来，女性下属却不能用这些昵称来称呼她们的上司，而且女性上司也不能如此来称呼她们的男性职员，可是，陌生男子或非亲密关系的男子却可用昵称来称呼女子，这说明在英美社会女性比男性社会地位低，受到的尊重比男性少。[2](P74)姓名称谓
在西方 ,女子婚前一般用父姓 ,婚后改用丈夫的姓 , 例如 :在西方婚礼上 ,新郎新娘步入教堂时 ,牧师宣布:“I now pronounce you man and wife.”“婚后的男子依旧是man ,而婚后的女子则由Miss变成了wife这种现象不乏女权主义者和职业妇女。”[2](P74)当时的美国总统Bill Clinton的夫人Hilary Rodhamon也在为自己的 ,即支持已婚女性不仅
应当标注夫姓 ,而且只应当标注夫姓 ,而不应继续标注父姓。尽管Hilary Rodhamon本人是一位女权运动者 ,但她还是把自己的名字根据丈夫和自己的政治需要, 先从Hilary Rodhamon改为Hilary Rodhamon Clinton, 最后改为Hilary Clinton。但是, 不管怎么改, 都不能超出如下选择: 要么跟父亲姓, 要么跟丈夫姓。这种以丈夫的姓冠之于前的称呼 ,表明妇女出嫁后就成了丈夫的私有财产, 是属于丈夫的, 因此无法得到与丈夫平等的权利。未婚女性用Miss冠以父姓, 已婚的用Mrs.或Lady冠以丈夫的姓氏。
指代称谓
1）提到男女双方时，双方不是处于平等地位，而是男先女后。
King and queen, brother and sister, father and mother, boys and girls, husband and wife, Adam and Eve, man and woman, Mr.Lucas and his wife Louise.2）.一些形式上没有男性标志的词意，人们习惯上把它们当作是男性词看待。
英语及其它讲英语国家的人习惯认为 professor, doctor, lawyer, surgeon, barrister, magistrate 等为男性，当我们听到有人说：My cousin is a professor 时，多数人会断定professor为男性。若要说明这些词是女性的，一般可在前面加上woman, lady, female 等 修饰语。如:woman professor, lady doctor, female worker等，这些所谓的中性词的用法从一个侧面反映出旧社会中地位较高的职业为男子所垄断，相反地teacher, nurse , secretary, model 等人们一般认为是女性，如为男性时前面要加上male或是man,如:male nurse, man teacher。这些习惯除了历史现实情况有关，也可以说是一种社会偏见。
（二）词语发展
首先，表面上对应的词,含义却往往褒男贬女在英语中往往通过对女性名词的恶化来达到性别歧视的目的。几乎所有的女性名词都带有贬义,如queen, lady, mistress, madam等,其贬义为“雌猫”、“情妇”、以及“鸨母”等,而与之对应的king, lord, master, father 等词,如将他们的起首字母大写即可升格为“上帝”、“基督”、“主”、“神”等意义。
其次，英语中常用一些动物的名称来指称某些女性。
比如:bat(贱妇,丑妇,妓女);dog(丑妇,贱妇,没有成就的女人,妓女);chicken(见面熟的年轻女人);cat(恶妇,包藏祸心的女人,可卑的女人);cow(子女多的女人,肥胖而不整洁的女人,经常怀孕的女人,妓女);mutton(放荡的女人,做少女打扮的老妇女,妓女)。
并且，英语中还有一些带有轻蔑色彩,专指中老年妇女的词汇。
比如:trot(老太婆);hen(爱管闲事或嘴碎的中年妇女);warhorse(粗声大气,肥胖固执的女人);crone(干瘪皱皮的老太婆);hag(爱做坏事的老丑妇);witch(老丑妇);biddy(长舌妇);harridan(面容枯槁,脾气暴躁的老妇)。
（三）谚语运用
理性类
宋朝黄六鸿《福惠全书，弄名部》载：“妇人水性杨花，焉得不为所动”，诋毁女子“用情不专”，“缺乏理性”，在英语中就有相类似的谚语。
Long hair and short wit.(头发长，见识短)
When an ass climbs a ladder, we may find wisdom in women.(若要女子有才智，除非毛驴攀上树)
言及女子“感情游移”“二三其德”的有：
A woman’s mind and winter wind change a lot.（冬天里的风，女子的心胸---变化异常）
Women, wind and fortune are ever changing.（女子，风向与命运，翻天覆地无常态）
婚嫁类
A fair face is half a portion.（姿色艳，嫁妆半）
When the candles are out, all women are fair.（烛灯熄，无妍女）
Daughters and dead fish are no keeping wares.（女大不中留）
Marry your son when you will, your daughter when you can.（娶媳不忙，嫁女宜速）
There are many good women, it’s true;but they are in their graves.（世上好女实在多，可惜都在坟里卧）
He that has a white horse and a fair wife never wants trouble.（倘若妻俊马俊，一世难得安静）
性情类
一代文豪莎士比亚曾云：“弱者，你的名字是女人”（Frailty, your name is woman）弱女子的典型形象特征是“泪水涟涟”。
Woman is made to weep.(女子生来好哭)
Nothing dries so fast as a woman’s tears.（易干不过女子泪）
Woman is made of glass.（女子脆复弱，象是玻璃货）
Glass and lasses are brittle wares.（少女嫩脆，瓷杯易碎）
（四）职业中的性别歧视
许多表示职业的名词,如engineer ,pilot, scientist ,writer, doctor，pilot, scientist, engineer, pilot等对男女都适用,本来是中性词汇,本身没有性的区别。“由于历史上男性长期占据社会主导地位,人们习惯把它们与男性联系起来。”[3](P210)如要特别指女性从事相同职业时,往往在前面加上female, woman lady, 从而使女性职业名词在外在的形式上呈现出“有标志性”,如woman doctor, female pilot, woman scientist, woman lawyer等。而行业名称冠以男性标记反而不符合语言习惯,但男保姆、男护士除外。只有一些地位较底的职业,如nurse, secretary等,传统上让人联想到女性,而与男性无缘。这种习惯除了与历史和现实有关,也可以说是一种性别歧视。
二、英语语言中性别歧视现象产生的原因
（一）、历史原因
在西方文化传统中,男性一直被认为富于创造力。在《圣经》里,创造世界的耶和华为男性,而耶和华创造的亚当亦是男性,亚当的妻子夏娃只不过是亚当一条肋骨的衍化物,这一传统观念就把创造力固定在男人身上,后人便有了“男性的特质是创造力的天赋”的说法。并且在圣经《创世纪》关于上帝造人的神话成了语言起源学说的联想依据。“在他们看来,既然上帝造
了亚当这天下第一个男人,语言中的“性”范畴就应将阳性置于首位。如果把两者的顺序颠倒过来,就不符合语言习惯。” [4](P132)英语语法并没有规定“先男后女”的语序,但人们在长期的言语习惯中,大都以男为先,女为后,女性只能是跟随在男性后面的第二性别。男先女后的语序是如此常见,以至于反过来如说woman and man ,she or he等则会令人感到不习惯。
（二）、社会原因
性别歧视的根源可以追溯到史前时代男女所扮演的性别角色。由于男性的肌肉比女性肌肉发达,又不生育,于是他们担当起打猎、耕作的角色,妇女体弱、要生育,所以负责照顾孩子、料理家庭、采集食物等。那时,男女角色虽然不同,但还没有一方价值高于另一方的观念。“随着社会生产力的不断发展,男子逐渐从事更多的农业生产活动,占据了主导地位,妇女的地位随供给食物能力的降低而下降。”[5](P113)到了中世纪时期,妇女由于能生养孩子,能为土地所有者生养合法继承人,她们成了地主丈夫的宝贵财产。为了使妇女处于这样的地位,统治者便借助法律令女性屈服和受制于丈夫,于是,各种约束妇女的各种社会规范和习俗开始形成。在漫长的父系社会里,妇女地位低下,依附男性,受制于男性,这种观念逐渐根深蒂固,被人们视为理所当然。直到二十世纪,妇女的地位有了很大的改善,但是社会化偏见是在社会化的过程中，通过社会群体，父母，亲友，伙伴的言传身教和大众传媒（广播，电影，电视，报纸）获得的。人们对女性的歧视和偏见也是从父母，亲友或群体的交往中直接获得的，或通过大众传媒获得的。在英语中，受传统观念的影响，对女性的语言歧视已经成为了一种恶性循环。比如，人们一看到或听到“virgin”和“prostitute”这两个词，首先想到的就是“处女”和“妓女”的意思，而很少想到它们还分别可用于指“处男”和“男娼”。
（三）、生理原因
记的有人写道：在医院的育婴室里，每个刚出生的婴儿的小床上都有说明性别的标记，上面清楚写着：“I am a boy”或“It is a girl”.这里男孩的称呼是I, 而女孩却用it。在婴儿还不知道什么是语言时，而在他们的身上已深深打上了文化和语言的印记。在英语中用男性物主代词his指代包括女性在内的任何人的现象也不胜枚举。例如Has everyone completed his
assignment?还有Everyone should do his best on the exam.这里的his已经包括了女性在内。虽然女性享有就业、选举、教育等等同男性一样的权利,然而女性仍然处于社会的边缘,被认为是“弱者”(the weaker sex)和“他者”(the other);男性始终占据主导地位。” [6](P210)根据1980年的联合国统计,男性拥有世界资源的99%,而女性拥有的资源不到1%。“因此说,对女性的歧视与偏见有长期的社会历史根源。”[6](P219)
三、消除英语语言中性别歧视的方法
随着社会的发展和妇女社会地位的不断提高，尤其是随着美国女权运动的高涨，消除语言中的性别歧视的呼声越来越高。这其中核心问题有两个：如何直接剔除语言中的性别歧视词（sexist words）；如何消除第三人称代词泛指而引起的性别歧视问题。我们从英语性别歧视词的转换方式和如何选用恰当的人称代词来消除性别歧视问题的对策这几个方面来进行介绍和讨论。
（一）、性别歧视词转换成无性别歧视词（non-sexist words）的方法尽量使用那些包括两性在内的词，即无性别歧视词，例如：immigrant, voter, officer, coach, church member, grandparent, employee, testee, patriot, customers, dealer, clerk, civilian, politician, tutor, etc.2.以阴性词缀-ess, ette, rix和enne 结尾的词要避免使用并改成无性别歧视的词缀：-or, an, er或ist。例如：actress →actor, administratrix →administrator ,suffragette →suffragist, usherette→ usher ,comedienne→ comedian.3.写信时，如果不知道收信人的具体性别时，最好不要使用传统的Dear Sir, Dear Gentleman, Dear Madam, 可用工作职称代替以免出现差错。例如：Dear friends of the library, Dear Madams and Sirs, Dear personnel officer, Dear Committee Member, Dear Agent, Dear Director.（二）、规避第三人称代词泛指所引起的性别歧视问题的对策
1.采用复数形式
Sexist: When bathing a baby, never leave him unattended.Revised: When bathing a baby, never leave them unattended.2.用We/us/our改写原句
Sexist: From each according to his abilities, to each according to his needs.Revised: From each of us according to our abilities, to each of us according to our needs.3.改用第二人称
Sexist: No man knows his true character until he has run out of gas, purchased something on the installment plan and raised an adolescent.Revised: You don’t know what your true character is until you have run out of gas, purchased something on the installment plan and raised an adolescent.4.改用被动语态
Sexist: One who, when he has the choice of two evils, chooses both.Revised: One who, when given the choice of two evils，chooses both.5.用 he and she/ his and her ,但是使用的次数不宜太多，否则会造成用词累赘。s/he仅仅可以用于备忘录(memos)，便条(notes)，或者非正式的交谈之中。
6.用名词或上下文中用过的同义词替代
Sexist: To find a friend one must close one eye, to keep him, two.Revised: To find a friend, one must close one eye, to keep a friend, two.7.采用交替使用阳性和阴性来达到平衡
例如：A young child is often persuaded by advertisements to buy what he sees on television.When the child does shopping with a parent, she sees the product on the shelf, remembers it, and asks to have it.（三）、英语教学作用
在英语教学中向学生传授新创立的中性表达法，学校和教师在语言的习得、文化的传授中起着不可低估的作用。改变对女性的否定态度,语言的改革也是重要的一环。语言教师同样也肩负着一份神圣的使命。在英语学习中,教师首先要规范自己的语言,在课堂上尽量避免带有性别偏见的语句。然后,教师根据教学内容把女权运动后英语中出现的新词、新用法传授给学生,有意识地加强性别平等的思想教育,让学生了解英语国家的社会变化、语言动态。应该强调妇女不应该被忽视。女人们每天在生活中仍然发挥着巨大的影响力。没有女人就没有男人的成功。女人们用自己的智慧竭尽全力使每个家庭生活更丰富多彩。
四、结论
在使用上面谈到的方法、对策时，我们一定要把握一个“度”，具体使用那一种方法、对策要取决于它能否使我们的写作、会话顺利进行并达到预期的效果。“正如以前女性主义思想家认为,女性与语言疏远太久,与她们的女性经验疏远太久,使她们不能将自己的经历符号
化。”[7](P331)传统的标准句法和确定的文类都代表父权制话语结构。因此女性主义试图找到新的语言和新的文学形式对女性现实做出反映。她们批评并激烈地改变既存语言,大胆地
进行创作实验,使用新词、新拼写、新语法结构、新意象和新隐喻以远离父权语言的权威结构,为女性寻求一片新的话语空间。女性主义的口号之一就是“妇女通过语言获得完全的解放”。而且，“语言是社会的一面镜子,语言中所折射出的性别差异和性别歧视现象并不是由语言符号本身的自然属性决定的,而是特定社会的价值观念和民族思维方式在语言中的必然反映。”[8](P287)语言本身是中性的,但语言的使用者却可以按照其社会观念和价值观念,赋予语言一定的语用色彩。若要消除语言包括人际称谓系统中的性别歧视现象,首先需根除社会上存在的性别歧视观念,语言的变革只有在社会变革的基础上才能最终实现。
从以上论述可以看到女性要获得自身的真正解放与不平等要做不懈努力。语言对社会的反映 经历了漫长的过程。旧的歧视清除了,新的歧视还会反映到语言中来。语言中性别歧视的真正消除,只能寄希望于在社会现实中,男女真正的平等。“索绪尔认为语言不仅是交际工具,还是思想的载体,没有语言作为载体和工具,人的思维也就无法发展。”[9](P267)性别歧视的改观不能等待男权的施舍,要女性自我的觉醒,要女性自己的参与。在强势和弱势文化的交汇中,同样需要弱势文化自身的努力。强调性别差异的重要性是必要的,但它只是过渡性的,女性不能只作为女性说话,男性也不能只作为男性说话。要走出性歧视的误区,出路在于语言的中性化,而实现语言的中性化,在于不断提高语言觉悟。因此,“女性运动要取得实质性的进展,不是依靠女性自身就能完成的,不仅需要世界范围内广大女性的团结,更需要寻求作为人类另一半的男性的支持与配合,因此更有必要加强与男性的沟通和协商。”[10](P113)
参考文献
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[2] 蒋桂红.谚语视野里的性别歧视[Ｊ].宁波大学学报, 2004, 第1期。
[3] 朱伯通等译.哥伦比亚美国文学史[Ｍ].成都:四川辞书出版社,1994。
[4] 穆凤良,李秀萍.英语中的性歧视与中性化[Ｊ].外语与外语教学,1998。
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[9](美)埃莱娜•肖瓦尔特.走向女权主义诗学.《新女权批评》及序言[Ｍ].纽约:潘修恩图书公司,1987。
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第三篇：论英语中的性别歧视
景德镇陶瓷学院科技
艺术学院
本科生毕业论文（设计）
题目：Sexism in English Vocabulary 学 号： 姓 名： 院（系）： 专 业： 完成时间： 指导老师：
CONTENTS Acknowledgements…………………………………………..Abstract in Chinese…………………………………….Abstract in English…………………………………….1.Definition……………………………………………… 2.Sexism in word-formation methods………………..2.1 Suffixes………………………………………….2.2 Sexism in compound words……………………..3.Sxism in Naming and Addressing…………………..3.1 Sexism and Naming……………………………….3.1.1 Sexism in the first names………………..3.1.1.1 Derivation of Female Names from Male Names……..3.1.1.2 Sexism in Semantic Naming of First Names……….3.1.2 Sexism in the family names…………… 3.1.2.1 Patrilineal System of Family Names 3.1.2.2 Change of Female Family Names upon marriage 3.2 Sexism and Addressing……….3.2.1 Sexism in Addressing Terms…..3.2.1.1Female Social Titles upon Relationship with Male…
3.2.1.2 Derogation of Female Honorific Titles…………….3.2.1.3 Abusive Addressing Patterns………………..4.Sexism in Proverb and Slang……………………………..4.1 Sexism in Proverb…………………………………………… 4.2 Sexism in Slang……………………………………… 5.Conclusion……………………………………………………..6.Bibliography……………………………………………………
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My deepest gratitude goes first and foremost to Professor Hou Xiaohua,my supervisor,for her constant and inspiring guidance and encouragement.She has walked me through all the stages of writing of the thesis.Without her constant and illuminating instruction,this thesis could not have reached its present form.Second,i would like to expree my heartfelt gratitude to all the teachers who taught me when i have striving for my Bachelor Degree for their excellent lectures and inspiring ideas.Last, my thanks would go to my beloved family for their loving considerations and great confidence in me all through these years.I also owe my sincere gratitude to my friends and my fellow classmates who gave me their help and time in listening to me and helping me work out my problems during the difficult course of the thesis
摘要
英语不仅是一种语言工具，也是一种意识形态工具。性别歧视这一文化观念反映在语言的词汇学中。牛津高级字典是这样解释的：“不平等的对待人，尤其是对女性，因为她们的性别”。本篇论文将从英语词汇构词法、词义、称谓语及谚语和俚语分析英语词汇中的性别歧视。所以对性别歧视了解的越多，避免的困难也就越多。这是很有实际意义的。关键词：语言；英语词汇；性别歧视
ABSTRACT
English is not only a language tool, but also an ideological tool.Vocabulary of the language can faithfully reflect the culture it serves such as sexism.The oxford advanced learner's dictionary explains it as below: the unfair treatment of people, especially women, because of their sex.This article will discuss sexism that exists in English lexicon in terms of word formation ,word meaning ,naming and addressing terms ,as well as proverb and slang terms.So the more you know it, the better you will avoid trouble.Therefore, the present research has important practical significances.Key words： language；English word;sexism;
1.Definition
Sexism，according to Oxford Advanced Learner‟s English
-Chinese Dictionary is defined as prejudice or discrimination against people(esp.woman)because of their sex;and according to Longman Dictionary of Comtenporary English ,sexism is defined as ideas and believe that menbers of one(usually man)sex are more able and clever than theode of the other sex.It is manifest in all forms of behavior from subtle gestures and especially language to exploitation and oppression，and in all human institutions from the family to the multinational corporation(Paula S．Rothenberg 1988：21)． It affirms the dominance of men over women，jnst as Rosemary Radford Ruether(1993：165)holds that“sexism is gender privilege of males over females．It is males primarily who have originated this form of oppression，benefited from it，and perpetuated it，legally and ideologically．”In this sense，it keeps women in second．classstatus，denies them their rights to control their own bodies，and denies personal，mental，and physical safety；it reinforces the false notion that any man who is gentle，flexible，compassionateor gay becomes“feminine”and thereby loses status and respect． 2.Sexism in word formation
Word formation is one of the elements in language from which we can find many examples of sexism.The most obvious one is the word “history”,which it combines words “his”and “story”.It claimed that the history belonged to man not the woman.In general,it is divided in to two categories,adding suffixes and compounding.2.1 Adding suffixes Adding-tress is common among words like ,actress,authoress,sculptress and waitress.Although it sometimes awarded some outlanding achievements of women,the importance of its role isn‟t the same as man.For instance,we usually call a man of a general manager,rather than a general manageress.The highest rank of poet in British is Poet Laureate,which it award to every distinguished poet including both males and females.Howerever,rarly had it probably honored a poet of Poetess Laureate.Word like hostess is widely accepted by people in bar ,which its meaning had been degraded.The same as in the terms of JewessNegrss and Quakeress
The suffix of-ette includes three meanings.The first one aims at small size,such as “cigarette(香烟)” and “kitchenette(小厨房）”.The second level is artifical ,such as “Leatherette(人造皮）”.The third level derives from the last two meanings which discloses the oweakness of woman and subordinates to man.As a result ,it discininates against woman obviously.Woman are unfairly treated.Duing the turn of 19 century and 20 century ,“Suffragette”was frequently used by women who wanted to strive rights for women.However,the public and media used it with derogation.Words like aviatrix(女飞行员），executrix(女执行官）and dominatrix(母夜叉)added the suffix of-trix,which all present an insular prejudice towards women.Women are so weak and fragile that they need obey to men.2.2 Sexism in compound words
In addition to sex discrimination in suffixes,compounding is a good example too.Take word-formationof common words made by “man” and “woman”for example.on one hand,there are a great many words with “man”,like human,policeman,chairman,businessman,sportsman,superman,mankind,postman,Englishman,airman,salesman,clergyman,kinsman,countryman,etc.Even the word “woman”is made up of “man.All these words should refer only to the male,while in fact,the meanings of these words also cover woman,which is obviously unfair to the female.Actually,this kind of words are regarded as masculine words in grammar.According to the point of view in English history,it inherits word-formation principle of Latin and old English in grammar gender.So such kinds of words empasize masculine in word structure.At the sametime,it also stresses that all things are done by the mmale, not the female in practical use.That is quite unfair to the female.On the other hand,in social life,pepole always regard women with discrimination.If a woman is engaged in noble cases,she will face much more difficulties than men.And the following meaning of words also show that the words made up of”woman”mainly emphasize the characteristics of women who are engaged in some kind of profession or belong to a certain of sector.For example,(1)Womankind: female human beings(2)Chairwoman: a woman presiding officer of an assembly meeting,committee or board(3)Womanpower:the power of woman physcial strength(4)Policewoman: a woman who is in a member of a police force(5)Womanhood:the state of being a woman;woman(6)Horsewoman:a woman horseback rider
3.Sexim in Naming and Addressing Spender(1985:24)notes: one of the features of English language practices which are inherently sexist is the use of naming and addressing terms.”Naming and addressing terms play an important role in interpersonal communication.They are continuously used in our daily life hence the social and cultualfactors encoded in them are very valuable for us to explore.3.1 Sexism and Naming
Naming system usually includes first name,middle name and family nam,such as “William Jefferson Clinton”.First name such as”William”in the example,is otherwise known as Chtistian name,forename or given name.Middle name like”Jefferson”in the example occurs betwwen the first name and family name as the second forename,and is usually represented by its capitalized initial letter and is often used in formal occassions.Family name is known as Surname,or last name,which is a name shared in common to identify the mumbers of a family,which is usuallyinheritedfrom the ascending generation on the paternal side,such as‟Clinton”in the example.This part will discuss the sexist phenomena in the first and family name on the basis of the analysis of their semantic features.3.1.1 Sexism in the first names
Giving first name to the infant is one of the most important tasks.First name is truly a lifetime gift from parents;it helps define the children within the family,school and the outside word.Hence an analysis of sexism in first names is very significant.3.1.1.1 Derivation of Female Names from Male Names
In English lots of female names derivate from male names by adding affixes for example,Stephen-Stephanie,Dana-Dana.Affixs play an important role in the formation of female names.After researching affixes used to refer to female in English,Mills(1995:93)claims that those affixes lead to a view of women as a derivation from a male universal norm and the female form is seen as the marked term and the male as the unmarked term.Therefore,it is not a surprise that female names would have some consistent marker bias.Many female names derive of male ones by addingthe suffixes “-a”(or “-ia” due to phonetic reason), “e” and “-line” to them.like Albert and Alberta、、Alex and Alexa、Daniel and Danielle、Gabriel and Gabriell and Paul and Pauline etc.First corresponding with the above, research has shown that male names differ fromfemale ones in two major aspects.Firstly, male names are shorter in spelling than female names according to the research, There are many male names are formed with one syllable such as Jim, Fred, John, Bob and Jack, while only few female names are one syllable.Furthermore, fewer female names have three or more than three syllables, such as Roberta, Victoria and Amand.Part of the explanation of this study lies in the fact that many female names are originated from male names by adding one or more syllables.Secondly, male names are phonologically different from female ones.This thesis finds that majority of male names are ended with consonant phonetic symbol in which some male names end with the stops [d], [t], [k] such as Robert, Richard, Jack;while only two femalenames do, namely, Brooke and Jade.However, most of female names analyzed endedwith a vowel [i], [i:], [ə], such as Mary and Anna, but only a few male names do so.Cutler argues(1990: 476), “Small vocal tracts such as [i], [i:], [ə], which producehigh-pitched sounds, are typically possessed by smaller, weaker, less threateningbeings.” Therefore, the frequent use of [i] in such female names as Tracey, Mary andBonnie, and [ə] in Rita, Selina and Lisa, reflects “smallness and lack of threat are heldto be desirable attributes of females”.Theoretically, the practice of deriving female names from male ones forms the contrast in which men are dominant and women are subordinate in society and meanwhile it is in accordance with the belief in Bible that woman was created from a rib of man.3.1.1.2 Sexism in Semantic Meaning of First Names
The names that people give their children show the hopes and dreams they have for them and also reflects their parents‟ hope and expectations for their children.So from their first names,we can know the different attitudes of parents to boys and girls.First names for girls and boys often reflect stereotyped features of feminity or.masculinity prevailing in a particular culture or society.It is undeniable that first names contain various connotations and this thesis will make an effort on the sexism in name‟s connotation In our society the vast majority of first names carry clear feminine or masculine connotations.People no matter in the East or West attach great importance to marking the child‟s sex when choosing a name for him or her.And in baby naming book, there might be two lists: one for girls and another for boys.According to it, parents are recommended to choose a name that identifies the child‟s sex.Besides marking the sex of the child, first names for girls and boys often reflect stereotyped features of femininity and masculinity prevailing in culture.More female names contain the connotation associated with appearance while more male names contain connotation associated with wealth, power, wisdom and intelligence.It reflects the sexist expectaton that male should improve internal quality and female should pay more attention to external beauty.3.1.2 Sexism in Family Names
Family names are passed down from generation to generation, it symbolizes the blood relationship and development of a family.From the way of giving family names, it is not difficult to find the sexism.3.1.2.1 Patrilineal System of Family Names
When women were born, they were given their fathers‟ name and adopted their husbands‟ names upon marriage.It‟s only sons who carry on their fathers‟ name forever, whereas women lost this capacity when they got married.This stresses the portrayal of women as the prosperity of men, passed from father to husband.They just have no freedom to own their own names.US Senator Hilary Clinton.Either way she names herself after a man－ her father or her husband, or both.Children typically inherited their fathers‟ rather than their mothers‟ family names, which enables fathers but not mothers to achieve a direct continuity of naming from generation, provided they have sons.Even if there are only daughter, however the derivation of female forms from male names enables the transmission to continue.It‟s very common for women in English-speaking countries to adapt their husbands‟ names upon they got married.Thus women are said to“marry into families and families are sad to „die out‟ if an all-female” generation occurs.Thus, Spender comments:“Practically”, it means that women‟s family names don‟t count and there is one more device making women invisible.”
In the ceremony, the, the official asks,“ Who gives the bride away?”and the father answers.“I do”, or “Her mother and I do”, but that does not solve the problem inherent in the idea that a bride is something to be handed over from one man to another.3.1.2.2 Change of Female Family Names upon Marriage
When a woman is referred with her husband‟s name, as in “Mrs.John Smith”, she is rendered both subordinate and invisible.For example, when a woman named Helen Keller marries to a man named John Fords, She is submerged by being called Mrs.John Fords.Even the woman is of high social status;it is the same with her.One of the candidates in 2008 Presidential Election of the United States of America, Hilary, the former president of Bill Clinton‟s wife, kept her maiden name “Hilary Rodham” after marriage.But in order to help her husband in the election, she had to change her names.Though allegedly a feminist, she has shifted between naming herself Hilary Rodham, Hilary Rodham Clinton and Hilary Clinton.Despite the fact that some countries no longer legally require for women to adopt their husband‟s names upon marriage, women who do not conform to this practice still face many practical and attitudinal obstacles.3.2 Sexism and Addressing
3.2.1 Sexism in Addressing Terms Addressing term is a mark that indentifies the relationship of people in social activities, which can present our ideal and social ties.It is used frequently in the communication.According to different criteria, address forms can be divided into different classifications.They can be divided into: social titles, occupational titles, endearments, abusive terms,kinship terms etc.3.2.1.1 Female Social Titles upon Relationship with Male Mr、Miss and Mrs are used frequently when we refers to address someone in social communication.All adult men are called Mr, however women have different addressing terms after they get married.As we know, marriage and age is private.The title of Mrs indicates that women are reluctant to disclose his marriage condition, which is unfair to women.In addition to this ,when adapting the Mrs, her family names do not belong to her own ,but her husbands‟.“Iron Lady” Margaret Thatcher and Nobel Prize Lady Marie Curie did not change this condition.These two famous persons still surbodinated to men.人们在社会交往中称呼某个男性或女性个体时，最常使 用的是Mr、Miss 和Mrs。对所有成年男性都统称为Mr，而对于 成年女性则有已婚和未婚的不同称谓。众所周知，婚姻和年龄 一直都是涉及到个人隐私的话题，而Mrs.这一称谓公开宣布 了女性不愿意表明的婚姻状况，让女人永远都得不到和男人 能够平起平坐的对待。更有甚者，当使用Mrs.的时候，女性使 用的不是自己的姓氏，取而代之的是丈夫的姓，表明自己已经 嫁给了某人，即使是一代名相“铁娘子”撒切尔夫人和诺贝尔 物理奖的居里夫人也没有改变这种现象，这两位女强人虽闻 名世界却仍旧摆脱不了被的问题。这一语言现象正
是由于人们认为男人是世界的主宰，而女人只是男人的附属
3.2.1.2 Derogation of Female Honorific Titles
In the male-orienated society, people honor high stature to men solely, for instance chairman、spokesman and policeman.However when woman gets achievements in her career, she will be regarded as an example.Such as words, doctor、lawyer can both designate the same state or condition as it did for men.However,it is a convention for people classifying them into male-dominated society.for example, “master” and “mistress”.In an earlier society, master and mistress were simple male-female equivalents meaning “one who has control over or ownership of something or has control over another or others”.With the changing of society, “master” now generally refers to a man who has power over others or who has acquired skills in some field.But its feminine counterpart cannot be used in this way.It is practically restricted to its sense of “paramour”, a woman who a man has a sexual relationship with, but is not married to.For example, “He is a master of intricacies and academic politics”, and “Catherine declined to be his mistress, and returned to her husband”.3.2.1.3 Abusive Addressing Terms for Female
Abusive terms of address are unfriendly and insulting terms to address others;convey quite unpleasant affections.There are two major types of words that are most likely to serve as abusive addressing terms which females are humiliated.Examples of the first type are: “wanton” is used to address a woman who is immoral, lewd, and unchaste.The second type are associated with such words as ass, pig, rat, tigress, duckie, shrew, turkey, cow, goat which is closely connected with the figurative meanings of such foods, plants and animals.A.Foods The food terms have not escaped the process of derogation, which often associated with women show women‟s passive image and subordinate status.The following are some examples: cheesecake—a picture of a naked lady;dumpling—short and fat women;mutton—indicating an elderly lady dressed up as a young girl in “mutton dressed(up)as lamb”;
sweet-pie—a mistress;tart—a prostitute or women behave frivolously or a woman considered to be sexually;B.Plants
Plants names are involved in addressing male or female.But the semantic prototype of male is a gigantic tree while that of female is flowers.Plants names are used to address females, they often have insulting meaning as follows: clinging vine—a woman who overly depends on a man emotionally;shrinking violet—a shy woman;wall flower—a woman who has no one to dance with.C.Animals
When you use an animal name for a female, usually they are smaller animals like “kitten”, “bunny”, “chick” which are more likely to become pejorative;and others like “chicken”, which more likely to acquire sexual suggestions.Male, however, are referred to as being a tiger, moose, or even as a bear to show aggressive masculine attribute and dominance to female.When you use an animal name for a female, usually they are smaller animals like “kitten”, “bunny”, “chick” which are more likely to become pejorative;and others like “chicken”, which more likely to acquire sexual suggestions.Male, however, are referred to as being a tiger, moose, or even as a bear to show aggressive masculine attribute and dominance to female.The following are examples:(a)For females bitch—a woman considered to be spiteful or overbearing or a lewd woman;butterfly—a showy or frivolous person(esp.a female);cat—a malicious or spiteful woman or an evil woman;chicken—prostitutes;(b)For males
goat—an old man who is sexually active or a lecherous man;loin—a brave, strong, or fiercely cruel person(usu.of males);tiger—a fierce, determined person(esp.males);wolf—a man given to paying unwanted sexual attention to women or a satyr.From the example discussed above, we could conclude that names of foods, plants and animals used to address female are sexist, because most of them humiliate female from the perspectives of appearance, personality and identity and meanwhile imply that female is inferior to male or easy to be obtained by male.4.Sexism in English proverbs
English proverbs reflect the social customs and cultural perceptions of the English-speaking countries.Since sexism is embodied in human culture, English proverbs unavoidably reflect sexist discrimination.This essay penetrates into sexism in English proverbs from three perspectives, namely status, personality flaws, and demands on women.4.1 Sexism in English proverb There are many proverbs that indicate women‟s low condition in society and her vulnerability in family.The following examples are classified into three kinds a.Social status and family status Man, woman and devil are three degrees of comparison.(男人、女人和魔鬼，三个等级分贵贱。)If the husband be not at home, there is nobody.(丈 夫不在家，等于说没人。)
A woman‟s advice is never to seek.(女人的建议一文 不值。)A woman of no birth may marry into the purple.(夫荣 妻贵。)A woman, a dog and a walnut tree, the more you beat them, the better they‟ll be.(拳脚之下出好妻，棍棒之下 有义犬，胡桃敲打多结果。)A man is a man though he have/has but a hose on his head.(家贫袜当帽，仍是男子汉。)A man of straw is worth of a woman of gold.(稻草男 儿抵得上金玉女子。)A fair face is half a portion.(姿色颜，嫁妆半。)Since the acient time ,women were suppressed under the low social status and suffered a lot.They subordinated to men and acted as an animal for men beating.b.vulnerability characteristic(1)Women are fragile
Frailty , thy name is woman.(脆弱啊，你的名字是女 人。)Woman is made to weep.(女人生性爱流泪。)A woman and a glass are ever in danger.(女人易毁，玻璃易碎。)A woman is the weaker vessel.(女人是易碎的器皿。)It is no more pity to see a woman weep than to see a goose go bare foot.(女人哭如鹅光脚走路，根本不值得可怜。)(2)Women are changeable.A woman is a weather cock.(女人是风向标。)A winter weather and women’s thoughts change oft.(秋 天的云，女人的心—变化莫测。)Women are wavering as the wind.(女人心思犹如风之多 变。)There’s nothing sooner dry than women’s tears.(什 么也没有女人的眼泪干得快。)(3)Women are noisy and troublesome.A woman’s tongue is the last thing about her that dies.Where there are women and geese, there wants no noise.(哪有鹅和女人，哪不缺喧闹声)Foxes are all tail and women are all tongue.Three women and a goose make a market.(三个女人一只 鹅，市场里面闹哄哄。)A woman’s tongue wags like a lamb’s tail.(女人饶 舌如同羔羊摆尾。)Words are women, deeds are men.（女人的嘴巴，男人的 行动。）
(4)Women are deceptive, pretentious and evil.Every woman would rather be beautiful than good.(女 人爱美不重德。)Tell a woman she is fair, and she will soon turn fool.(跟女人讲她长得漂亮，很快她就会晕头转向。)Bad woman are worse than bad men.Trust not a woman, when she weeps.Bad women can do more than the devil.Women are the devil’s nets.(女人是万恶之源。)There is no devil so bad as a she-devil.(魔鬼当中女 人最坏。)3.Traditonal requirments The smell of an onion from the mouth of the lovely is sweeter than that of a rose in the hand of the ugly.(美女口中葱蒜臭，胜过丑女手中玫瑰香。)Husbands are in heaven whose wives scold not.(老婆 不唠叨，丈夫就像生活在天堂里。)A simple maiden in her flower is worth a hundred coats of arms.(正值芳龄的纯洁少女值一百枚勋章。)Beauty without virtue is like a rose without scent.(美而无德犹如花无香味。)Silence is the best ornament of a woman.(女子文静，不须治容。)Maidens should be mild and meek, swift to hear, and slow to speak.(少女尚温柔，多听慢开口。)Modesty is the ornament of women.(稳重为妇女增美。)A good wife and health are a man’s best wealth.(贤 妻与健康是丈夫最佳财富。)从古至今，女性都处在被观赏和被品位的地位，在男性占主 导的社会中，女性被要求既要上得厅堂，又要下得厨房，既要有 貌，又要有德，既要纯洁，又要贤淑。
第四篇：试析英语谚语中的性别歧视
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从《去吧，摩西》中的“熊”看福克纳对人性的探讨
失败的逃亡—从《麦田守望者》中主人公的逃亡看个人意识对社会的超越 131 网络语言特色分析
论《野性的呼唤》的多重主题 133 新加坡英语和英国英语比较研究
英语毕业论文)从利益最大化的角度分析商务谈判中的报价策略 135 奈达“功能对等”理论在中国电影片名英译中的运用分析 136 An Analysis of Gothic Features in Poe’s The Cask of Amontillado 137 中美个人理财规划的对比分析
On the Translation of Children’s Literature in the Light of the Skopostheory:A Case Study of The Adventures of Tom Sawyer 139 从电影《刮痧》看东西方文化差异
Study of the Translation of Flower Image in Chinese Classical Poetry 141 初中英语课堂教学师生互动有效性研究 142 诗歌《飞鸟集》的意象评析 143 论大学英语口语课外活动
A Contrastive Analysis of Chinese and English Address Terms 145 An Interpretation of Initiation Theme in Heart of Darkness 146 《傲慢与偏见》中的婚姻
Symbolic Meanings of Babel in The Dogs of Babel 148 A Study on Subtitle Translation of Legal Films 149 从《红字》看霍桑的道德思想观
On the Integrative Use of Multiple Teaching Methods in Middle School English Class 151 论企业对员工过度压力的管理
152 从《一间自己的房间》看弗吉尼亚•伍尔夫的女性主义 153 英文谚语的文化场景在中译文中的缺失与弥合 154 《了不起的盖茨比》—美国梦的破灭 155 毛泽东诗词中典故翻译的对比研究 156 从文化角度看中美家庭教育的差异 157 英文电影中俚语的翻译策略
158 两种文化中不同的生存希望——以电影《肖申克的救赎》和《活着》人物命运分析为例
159 跨文化视角下研究英汉民俗词语的不等值翻译 160 中式英语成因之分析 161 英语语言中的性别歧视
162 浅谈文化差异对国际商务谈判的影响及对策 163 温和的反叛者——论《小妇人》中的女性群像 164 论《荆棘鸟》中的女性意识 165 跨文化背景下的广告翻译技巧 166 文化负迁移对翻译的影响
167 高中英语写作中母语负迁移现象分析
168 A Comparative Study of Inversion between English and Chinese 169 中美篮球背后的青年文化 170 论《看不见的人》的主人公的心理成长历程
171 天鹅的涅槃——以跨文化交际的角度解读《喜福会》中母女关系 172 浅析爱伦坡《乌鸦》的语音象征 173近年来汉语中英语借词的简析
174 《愤怒的葡萄》中圣经的象征和隐喻
175 从王尔德喜剧中的花花公子形象解读王尔德信奉的纨绔主义 176 英汉基本颜色词的文化内涵对比及其翻译
177 《红字》中的丁梅斯代尔和齐灵渥斯谁更“恶”？
178 生命不息，奋斗不止——海明威小说中的英雄伦理观和英雄形象研究 179 比较《百万英镑》和《阿Q正传》 180 超音段特征对意义的影响 181 中英文化差异与翻译策略
182 新闻英语中的委婉语及其翻译策略 183 试析英语谚语中的性别歧视
184 简•奥斯汀《诺桑觉寺》中人物对爱情和婚姻的不同态度 185 浅谈商标的特点及其翻译 186 试论英语学习中的动机
187 试究中国古诗词英译中的常用技巧—以《发如雪》为例
188 A Thousand Splendid Suns: from the Perspective of Initiation Story 189 企业英文简介中的概念语法隐喻分析
190 以马斯洛需求层次理论分析《傲慢与偏见》中的爱情婚姻观 191 试析中英婚姻生活差异及其原因 192
193 紫色中女人意识的觉醒
194 论礼貌制约下You-attitude在英语商务信函中的用法 195 跨文化交际中的中西方时间观念
196 跨文化交际中英语副语言的表现和交际功能
197 从《悲悼三部曲》看尤金•奥尼尔对古希腊悲剧的继承性超越 198 论D.H.劳伦斯诗歌中的救赎意识 199 《呼啸山庄》的哥特式传统
第五篇：女权主义主要派别及对我国哦女权运动的影响和启示
派别(一)自由解放的女权主义
自由解放的女权主义的主旨是建立社会公正，争取性属间的机会平等，实行家庭自治，获得女性的生存和发展的自由。而要做到这一点，需要最终走出性属，超越社会性别差别，通过人道主义的公正而获得新的解放。
二)激进的女权主义
激进的女权主义看到，社会的不平等造成了性别阶级和性别阶级间的不平等。正是男性家长制（父权制/男权制，男性沙文主义）压迫着女性：那是一个被权力，支配，阶级组织和竞争等特性规定的系统——一个不可能是改革的系统，但仅仅是一个枯枝败根的系统而已。而它却不仅使得家长制统治成为合法的、政治上的、和必然倾覆的经济结构；而且也是社会的和文化的组织机构。(尤其家庭，教堂和学院)。但是激进的女权主义希望通过对社会造成的性属差异和对立的超越，实现“性别的对话”。到要达到这一步，还需要对父权制和由此产生的对女性的压迫和分离的权力进行各种揭露、斗争和抗争。
(三)社会主义的女权主义
社会主义的女权主义注重的是《女性：地位、阶级或被压迫的性别》等问题。这一马克思主义女权主义理论的主要内容是从人类社会发展史的角度探求女性受压迫的根本原因。根据马克思主义经典理论家的论述，其根源大致有三个方面。第一，生产资料私有制的出现。由于私有制出现，男性既成为土地的主人，也成了女性的拥有者，这是“女性的具有世界历史意义的失败”。第二，历史上的一夫一妻制家庭使女子处于从属地位。第三，女性体力弱小也是其受压迫的根源之一。随着私有制的出现，女性被排除于社会生产之外，而只限于从事家庭的私人劳动。
女权主义，或被译作女性主义是指反对男权压迫，以寻求独立平等和个性的解放为其终极目标的思想思想学说。它生于20 世纪60 年代末70 年代初的女权主义，是西方妇女解放运动的产物。女权主义对社会主义国家的启示
第一，西方女性理论对我国女权运动的影响和启示
1、女性教育问题正规教育和非正式教育、普通教育和专业技能教育等，都是当代女性所需要的。尽管现在城市里女性受教育的机会较多，可是有些贫困的家庭也难以保证女性收到良好教育。然而，在广大农村和边远地区，众多女性被繁重的劳动和家务束缚，得不到应有的发展，命运无法改变。
2、女性性别歧视问题一说到女性，人们只是和两件事与之相连：一是家庭里的奉献者和牺牲者，二是生儿育女的工具。通常男性们———在任何时间和任何地点，只把女性看成是性客体和性工具，这直接危害到女性的人格尊严和社会地位的确立；这种严重的性别歧视表现在社会的方方面面和时时刻刻。因此，我们必须认识、揭露和批判这些极端恶劣的观念和暴力行径，更需要通过社会实践的革新来加以改变，首先要把女性当人看待———这是现代文明创建的基本要求。
3、，对女性的性骚扰问题当一个男人对女性提出不受欢迎的性要求、或想获取性方面的好处，或对其做出不受欢迎的涉及性的行径，他的行为就构成了性骚扰。虽然我国目前加快了对性骚扰的相关立法，但是这并不能迅速解决社会上严重的性骚扰问题；还需要社会和女性个人对性骚扰言论行为的斗争和打击； 性骚扰的实质是对女性的性别歧视主义和男性优越的父权制统治的保护。
4、女性发展升迁自立问题在发达国家的女性中，流行着“玻璃天花板”的说法，意思是说，女性的发展受到阻止，可以看到前途，却永远不属于女性；然而在中国的女性中，所遇到的是“石头的天花板”，处处碰壁却得不到机会。这直接影响到社会的进步，因为女性的创业和发展程度，是衡量一个国家竞争力的重要指标。
5、女性就业和再就业问题女性找工作受到排斥和分离主义的阻止，全世界只有在中国就业市场上，用人单位包括国家机关各部委，都会打出“不要女生”或“只要男生”的牌子，明目张胆地表现出排斥女性就业的性别歧视主义的恶劣态度！有的干脆用各种方式刁难或者羞辱女性求职者！诸如此类的东西，情形非常严重，极大地限制了女性的发展；亟待改变。
6、生殖健康和教育养育孩子问题这是中国女性最多的困惑所在，由于女性对这些方面的知识不足，普及女性健康教育和子女教育知识，这是必须的和亟待尽快解决的问题；女性健康和发展在对一代人的成长，和对于一个民族的发展，其意义和作用是不可估量的。
7、家庭暴力问题这是十分严重的问题，家庭暴力的实质是维护男性在家庭里对女性的控制和特权； 有很多的家庭里，性虐待、性滥用，甚至于对未成年人实施的（性的和其他方面的）虐待，殴打妻子和孩子，性恐怖主义，极端方式的暴力等等。可是社会不干预/干预受阻和当事人的不言语/忍受/恐惧都是对制止暴力不利的。
8、毒滋黄对女性的毒害问题随着开放的的步伐，当今世界的受帝国主义压迫的国家和人民开展了一系列争取民族独立和解放的斗争，进而诞生了大批的民族独立国家，并从客观上最终冲垮了帝国主义殖民统治的世界体系。并且，十月革命后所建立的一种经济新思路和发展模式，也为东方落后国家在赶超现代化的道路上提供了一个可行性的借鉴
二、它的胜利推动了国际关系中和平、民主趋势的发展和国际新秩序的建立，并为此做出了贡献 一方面，十月革命的胜利鼓舞了各被压迫民族和人民，使民族解放与追求和平民主掀起一股浪潮；另一方面，它使世界上资本主义、帝国主义的单级世界的现象被打破，出现了人民当家做主的社会主义国家。它的胜利推动了国际关系中和平、民主趋势的发展和国际新秩序的建立，并为此做出了贡献。
三、它对作为邻国的中国产生了至为重要的影响
十月革命鼓舞了许多被压迫国家去寻求民主和平与独立解放。作为中国，也是这样的。但是，他有一个不同于其他国家的特点，就是他在十月革命的影响下也同时选择了走社会主义制度的道路，女权主义追中国也产生了影响。
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