第一篇：中石化高级英语
一、短文（阅读理解）
1、How to be Happy如何获得幸福
In the past two weeks we have looked at the happiness formula defined by positive psychologist Martin Seligman, where H(happiness)= S(your biological set point for feeling happy)+ C(the conditions of your life)+ V(the voluntary choices you make).This week we look at the conditions in life that can improve our happiness quotient.Step 1: Peace and quiet：Jonathon Haidt in his excellent book, The Happiness Hypothesis, notes that research shows that we can never completely adapt to new or chronic noise pollution.Loud noises trigger one of our most primitive fear responses(the other is the fear of falling)and we can never fully relax if we are surrounded by intrusive noise.It is essential to have some peace and quiet every day.If you are unfortunate enough to live somewhere noisy, persist with complaining to your local council.Additionally, try wearing wax earplugs to have some respite.If you need your TV, radio or music up loud, wearing headphones demonstrates altruism to your neighbours, which will make you and them feel good.Step 2: Relationships：This is the most important of all the external conditions that can improve your happiness quotient.Often our deepest sources of unhappiness are found in poor relationships with others.A cruelly conflictual relationship with a partner or lover leaves us feeling betrayed and abandoned.A relationship with our parents or children which is not based on compassionate, unconditional regard creates isolation and misery.When faced with such relationships, the most positive thing we can do is to either mend the relationship by confronting what is going wrong or learn to move on.Step 3: Share：If you have discovered conditions or choices in life that have significantly improved your wellbeing, remember to share them with friends.Passing on what works is essential to improve the wellbeing of our own and others.过去两周我们研究了一项幸福公式，这是由乐观心理学家马丁·塞利格曼定义的。在这个公式中，H（幸福）=S（个人生理幸福感受的固定指数）+C（个人生活状态）+V（个人主观选择）。本周我们将着眼于能提升幸福指数的生活状态。
第一步：平和宁静：乔纳森·海迪在他的优秀著作《幸福假说》当中提到，研究调查显示，我们不可能完全适应噪音污染，无论是新近的还是长期的。巨大噪声会引发我们面对恐惧的某种本能反应（另一种是对于坠落的恐惧），如果周遭噪音喧闹，我们不可能完全放松。每日保持平和与宁静事关重要。如果你不幸生活在比较嘈杂的环境中，请一定要坚持去居委会投诉。另外，尝试使用耳塞，可能会缓解噪声。如果你需要用大音量看电视、听收音机或放音乐的话，记得戴上耳机，别影响邻里，这样可以使双方都感到舒适。
第二步：人际关系：这是增加幸福指数的一条至关重要的外部条件。我们感到不快乐的最深层原因，往往就是人际关系欠佳。与搭档或者爱人的关系陷入激烈的冲突中，会让我们产生遭到背叛和遗弃的感觉。父母和孩子之间如果缺乏同情心和无私关怀，会产生隔阂与痛苦。当我们面临这类问题时，最好的办法就是直面难题，修复关系，或者学着继续前行。
第三步：分享：如果你发觉生活状态或者做的某项决定对幸福生活有重大帮助的话，记得与你的朋友们分享。将有用的发现与更多人分享，这对增进自己的幸福和他人的幸福都有积极作用。
1、What's the happiness formula according to the passage? The formula refers to H(happiness)= S(your biological set point for feeling happy)+ C(the conditions of your life)+ V(the voluntary choices you make).2、Why can we never completely adapt to new or chronic noise pollution? Loud noises trigger one of our most primitive fear responses and we can never fully relax if we are surrounded by intrusive noise.3、How could we make both ourselves and the neighbors feel good? If we need our TV, radio or music up loud, wearing headphones demonstrates our kindness and consideration to our neighbors.4、Where does the unhappiness come from? Our unhappiness often comes from poor relationships with others.5、What is the positive way to face with the cruelly conflictual relationship? What you can to do is to either mend the relationship by confronting what is going wrong or learn to move on.2、City Design城市设计
When I'm being driven through a city from our hotel to a conference center, I couldn't help but note the overwhelming presence of cars and parking lots.The world's cities are in trouble.In hundreds of cities, the life of daily life is deteriorating.Breathing the air in some cities is equivalent to smoking two packs of cigarettes per day.The number of hours commuters spend going nowhere sitting in traffic-congested streets and highways climbs higher each year, raising frustration levels.In response to these conditions, we are seeing the emergency of a new urbanism.In just a few years,many cities banned the parking of cars on side walks, created or renovated more parks, introduced a highly successful bus-base rapid transit system, built hundreds of kilometers of bicycle paths and pedestrian streets, reduced rush hour traffic, planted more trees and involved local citizens directly in the improvement of their neighborhoods.The quality of urban life in these cities has been greatly enhanced with the vision of a city designed for people.Now government planners everywhere are experimenting, seeking ways to design cities for people not cars.Cars promise mobility.But in an urbanizing world there is an inherent conflict between the automobile and the city.After a point, as their numbers multiply, automobiles provide not mobility but immobility.Based on this perspective, some cities in industrial and developing countries alike will dramatically increase urban mobility by moving away from the car.Let me remind you once more, cities are built for people, not for cars.A city full of cars is like what the horrifying sci-fi depicted---all mechanism and no human.In order to avoid this disaster, we'd better start designing sustainable cities.当我从旅馆乘车穿行城市前往会议中心时，映入眼帘的是无处不在的汽车和停车场。全世界的城市都陷入了困境，数以百计的城市日常生活的质量正在不断下降。在一些城市，每天呼吸空气等于抽两包香烟。每天上班族驱车时因街道和道路堵塞而寸步难行，耽搁的时间逐年升高，郁闷也随之加深。
针对上述情况，我们可以看到一种新城市主义的理念正在兴起。在短短的几年内，许多城市的人行道上不再允许停车，新建和改造了更多的停车场，建立了一套以公共汽车为基础的极为成功的快速运行系统，兴建了数百公里的自行车道和步行街，高峰时段的交通拥挤得以减缓，种植了更多的树木，并吸收当地市民直接参与社区的改善工作。城市设计以人为本的理念使这些城市的生活质量有了很大的提高。
现在，各地政府的规划者们都在尝试寻找为了人而不是为汽车设计城市的方法。汽车应带给人们活动的便捷。但是在一个不断城市化的世界里，存在着一个根深蒂固的矛盾，即汽车与城市之间的矛盾。超过一个临界点之后，随着汽车数量的累加，汽车提供的不再是便捷，而是停滞。
基于这个观点，无论在发达的工业国家还是发展中国家，一些城市将会通过远离汽车来极大增加市区的通畅。让我再次提醒你，城市是为了人，不是为了汽车而建设的。挤满汽车的城市就像恐怖的科幻小说里描绘的——全是机械，没有人性。为了避免这场灾难，我们最好开始设计可持续发展的城市。
1、What means of transportation does the author take to the conference center? He takes a bus.2、According to the first paragraph what is happening in cities where there are more cars? Cars not only do harm to people's health but also cause heavy traffic jam.3、What does the last sentence “the vision of a city designed for people” in paragraph 2 mean? Design cities for people not(for)cars.4、Why is there an inherent conflict between the automobile and the city in urban areas? Because people depend largely on cars
5、How would a city look like if cars were everywhere? There would be all cars(mechanism)no human.3、Population人口
A very important world problem is the increasing number of people who actually inhabit this planet.The limited amount of land and land resources will soon be unable to support the huge population if it continues to grow at its present rate.So why is this huge increase in population taking place? It is really due to the spread of the knowledge and practice of what is becoming known as “Death Control”.You have no doubt heard of the term “Birth Control”.“Death Control” is something rather different.It recognizes the work of the doctors and scientists who now keep alive people who, not very long ago, would have died of a variety of then incurable diseases.Through a wide variety of technological innovations that “include farming methods and the control of deadly diseases, we have found ways to reduce the rate at which we die.However, this success is the very cause of the greatest threat to mankind.If we examine the amount of land available for this ever-increasing population, we begin to see the problem.If everyone on the planet had an equal share of land, we would each have about 50,000 square meters.This figure seems to be quite encouraging until we examine the amount of usable land we actually have.More than three-fifths of the world's land cannot produce food.Obviously, with so little land to support us, we should be taking great care not to reduce it further.But we are not!Instead, we are consuming its ”capital“---its nonrenewable fossil fuels and other mineral deposits that took millions of years to form but which are now being destroyed in decades.We are also doing the same with other vital resources not usually thought of as being nonrenewable, such as fertile soils, groundwater and the millions of other species that share the earth with us.在我们这个星球上居住的人越来越多，是一个很重要的全球问题。如果继续按照现有的增长率发展下去，那么有限的土地及土地资源很快不能养活这么巨大的人口。
那么为什么会出现人口的大量增长呢？这的确是因为知识的广泛传播和众所周知的“死亡控制”的结果。毫无疑问，你肯定听到过“生育控制”这个术语。“死亡控制”是大不相同的。它承认了医生和科学家的工作，现在他们能够留住那些患有各种各样绝症的病人的生命。而这些绝症在不久之前还是不可治愈的。通过大范围的技术创新，其中包括耕作方法和对绝症的控制，我们已经找到降低死亡率的方法。然而，正是这项成功给人类带来最大的威胁。
如果计算一下维持不断增长的人口所需的土地量，我们就能意识到这个问题。如果这个星球上的每个人都平均分一块土地，我们每个人会拥有五万平方米。这个数字看似相当振奋人心，而当我们计算一下每个人的实际可用耕地之后，就知道情况不太乐观了。因为世界上超过3/5的土地都不能生产粮食。
显然，能够养活我们的耕地如此之少，我们就应该想方设法不要让耕地继续减少下去。但是，我们并没有这样做！反而我们正在消耗它的“本钱”——其不可再生的化石燃料与其它矿藏，它们是在几百万年的时间里才形成的，然而现在，几十年内就会被消耗殆尽。我们对待其它通常不被看做是不可再生的重要自然资源也是如此，譬如肥沃的土地、地下水和千百万与我们共同居住在地球上的物种。
1、What can be learnt about the population growth at present? It continues to increase at its present rate.2、According to the article, what contributes to the population increase? Death Control
3、What is the doctors' job according to paragraph 2? They keep people who suffer from incurable diseases alive.4、Why isn't there enough land to support human beings? Because the world's land has already been taken up by the ever-increasing population.5、In paragraph 4 the fertile soils are considered as ___.nonrenewable
4、Earthquake地震
Earthquakes may be ranked as one of the most devastating force known to men;since records began to be written down, it has been estimated that earthquake-related fatalities have numbered in millions and that earthquake-related destruction has been beyond calculation.The greater part of such damage and loss of life has been due to collapse of buildings and effects of rock slides, floods, fire, disease and other phenomena resulting from earthquakes, rather than from the quakes themselves.The great majority of all earthquakes occur in two specific geographic areas.One such area encompasses the Pacific Ocean and its contiguous land masses.The other extends from the East Indians to the Atlas Mountains, including the Himalayas, Iran, Turkey and the Alpine regions.They may happen anywhere at any time.This element of the unknown has for centuries added greatly to the dread and horror surrounding earthquakes, but in recent times there have been indications that earthquake prediction may be possible.By analyzing changes in animal behavior, pattems of movements in the earth's crust, variations in the force of gravity and the earth's magnetic field and the frequency with which minor earth tremors are observed, scientists have shown increasing success in anticipating when and where earthquakes will strike.As a result, worldwide earthquake warning network is already in operation and has helped to prepare for the vast destruction that might otherwise have been totally unexpected.It is doubtful that man will ever be able to control earthquakes and eliminate their destructiveness altogether, but as how and why earthquakes happen become better understood, man will become more and more able to deal with their potential devastation before it occurs.地震是人类所知的最具有破坏力的自然灾害之一。自从有记载以来，估计由地震造成的死亡达数百万以上，地震造成的破坏更是不计其数。地震造成的破坏如此之大，死亡如此之多，主要是由于地震引发的建筑物倒塌、岩石崩落、洪水、火灾、疾病等现象造成的，而不是由于地震本身。
大多数地震发生在两个独特的地理位置。一个是环太平洋地区及相邻的大陆架，另一个是从印度东部延伸到阿特拉斯山脉，其中包括喜马拉雅山、伊朗、土耳其和阿尔卑斯地区。那里随时随地都可能发生地震。
几个世纪以来，这种对于地震的未知性更大大地增加了地震的可怕和恐惧性。但近几年来已有迹象表明地震预测是可能的。通过分析动物行为的变化，地壳运动的方式，地球磁场和地心引力的变化以及监测到的轻微地震的频率，科学家在预测地震发生的时间和地点上已取得了不断的成功。因此，世界性地震预警网络已经运转，而且已经帮助人们对大范围的破坏做好准备，而这些破坏也可能是完全不能预料的。
人类是否能完全控制地震并消除它的破坏力还未可知。但是，随着我们对地震发生的方式和原因有了更多的了解，在地震发生之前，我们就能更好地应对可能造成的破坏。
1、What are the causes of the great part ofthe damage and loss of life? Collapse of buildings and the effects of rock slides, floods, fire, disease and other phenomena from earthquakes.2、Where are the two most active earthquake belts in the world? The area encompasses the Pacific Ocean and its contiguous land masses, East Indians to the Atlas Mountains.3、What fact does “element of the unknown” in paragraph 3 refer to? It refers to the fact the earthquakes can happen anywhere at any time.4、What four ways are used to anticipate earthquake activity? a)analyzing changes in animal behavior b)patterns of movements in the earth's crust c)variations in the force of gravity and the earth's magnetic field d)observation of the frequency of minor earth tremors
5、What is the author's attitude toward the possibility of earthquake predictions? Earthquake prediction is becoming more and more possible.5、The Aftermath of BP Gulf Oil Spill英国石油公司墨西哥湾原油泄漏
In the aftermath of the BP oil spill, President Obama voiced the concerns of countless scientists, environmentalists, and Gulf Coast residents when he declared, “We're dealing with a massive and potentially unprecedented environmental disaster.” The sheer size of the oil spill---210,000 gallons a day contaminating the Gulf of Mexico---has many people worried about the short and long-term environmental harm it is causing.The oil spill could severely damage fragile ecosystems for years, possibly decades.Beaches fouled by oil spills are very difficult to clean up.To make matters worse, the spill threatens beaches just as shorebirds are nesting and sea turtles are coming ashore to lay their eggs.Even worse is the effect the oil spill could have on.sensitive salt marshes and mangrove coastlines, which would be practically impossible to clean and that some fear might be permanently destroyed.These wetlands are considered the nurseries for the fishing and seafood industry and are a vital habitat and breeding ground for many species of wildlife.Because they cover much more land area than beaches, the risk oftheir exposure to damage is greatly increased.Fully 98 percent of the fish and shellfish harvested in the Gulf of Mexico depend on estuaries, which are coastal waters where freshwater from rivers and streams mix with sea water.Estuaries are dependant on wetlands for their water quality and to provide a basis for aquatic food chains.Many species depend on wetlands for food, shelter and breeding.The waters of the Gulf of Mexico are homes to hundreds of species of aquatic life.The longer the oil fouls the water, the more polluted the food chain becomes, which could result in large fish kills and seafood too contaminated for consumption.英国石油公司原油泄漏事件之后，奥巴马总统的一次公开讲话表达出了无数科学家、环保主义者以及墨西哥湾居民的心声。他在讲话中提到，“我们正在应对的是一场巨大的、史无前例的环境灾难”。每天足足有21万加仑的原油泄漏并污染着墨西哥湾，这使得很多人为这次事件对环境所造成的短期和长期的危害感到担忧。
这次原油泄漏事件对脆弱的生态系统带来的严重破坏会持续很多年，甚至数十年。被石油污染的海滩很难被清理干净。更糟糕的是，泄漏的石油对海滩造成污染的时间正是海鸟筑巢和海龟游到岸上孵蛋的季节。
还有更糟的事情，石油污染还可能影响敏感的湿地和红树林海岸，而这将是几乎不可能被清理干净的，有些人甚至担心这将是永久性的毁坏。这些湿地是捕鱼业和水产品工业的摇篮，也是多种野生动物的栖息地和繁殖地。由于这些湿地面积远远大于海滩的面积，所以它们面临破坏的风险就大大增加了。
在墨西哥湾捕获的鱼类和贝类中足有98%依靠河口生存，这些河口就是江河与海水汇合的地方。而河口又依赖于湿地保证其水的质量并为水产品供应链提供基础。湿地是很多物种觅食、栖息和繁殖的场所。
墨西哥湾水域也是成百上千种水栖动物的家园。石油对海水造成污染的时间越长，水产品食物链被污染的程度就会越大，这最终会造成大量的鱼类死亡以及水产品被严重污染而无法食用。
1.In the first sentence “President Obama voiced the concems ofcountless scientists...” what does the word “voice” mean? Voice here means “to express an idea of...” 2.How long could the damage to the ecosystem last? The damage to the ecosystem could last decades.3.How important are the wetlands to the wildlife? The wetlands are a vital habitat and breeding ground for many species of wildlife.4.Why are estuaries dependent on wetlands? Estuaries are dependant on wetlands for their water quality and to provide a basis for aquatic food chains.5.How will the oil spill affect the seafood in the Gulf of Mexico? Many fish will die and the seafood will be too contaminated for consumption.6、Green Computers“绿色”电脑
Computer manufacturers, chipmakers and software companies are developing “greener” products for environmentally conscious consumers.While some tech companies are developing more energy-efficient product lines, others are releasing software to make existing computers consume less.And electronics manufacturers are expanding_ways to make new computers out of recycled materials, as well as encourage customers to recycle old machines.Consumers may pay a slight premium for some eco-friendly electronics, but many prices will be comparable with traditional offerings.Several factors are pushing companies to be greener.Many want to stay ahead of environmental legislation and to garner favor with green investors.And with energy prices high, they are trying to appeal to people who are looking for ways to chip away at expenses.The computer industry has been working on improving energy consumption for years.The newer focus has been on toxins and recycling.For example, Lenovo Group Ltd.uses 10% to 25% recycled plastics harvested from water bottles.Last month, Intel Corp.introduced new chips that it says will speed up computing performance without sucking up additional power.The company also developed technology, called Remote Wake, to keep computers in a low-energy mode until users need them for retrieving files over the Internet.Hewlett-Packard Co.has developed a new feature called Auto-On / Auto-Off that puts inactive printers into a sleep mode and can quickly power back up once they are used again.This feature has been added to HP's personal desktop laser printers in 2009.Attention to manufacturing materials is a priority.HP introduced an ink-jet printer that is made of 83% recycled plastics.Experts say that keeping your old computer out of the landfill is better for the environment than buying a new one.目前，电脑生产商、芯片制造者和软件公司都纷纷开发“绿色”产品来满足那些环保意识强烈的消费者的需求。一些科技公司开发了更节能的生产线，还有一些公司推出了减少现有电脑耗电量的软件。电子制造企业不断扩展工艺利用循环材料生产新电脑，并鼓励消费者循环利用旧电脑。某些环保类电子产品可能需要消费者多花些钱，但仍有很多环保电脑的价格跟传统电脑差不多。
有几大因素推动着电脑公司更注重环保。许多企业希望走在环保法规的前面，赢得环保投资者的支持。同时，随着能源价格上涨，他们正尝试吸引那些设法节省费用的消费者。
计算机工业多年来一直致力于减少能源消耗，新焦点已经放到了毒性和循环利用上来了。例如，联想集团使用的塑料中有10%至25%是用回收的水瓶制造的。上个月，英特尔集团将新款芯片投放市场，据称这些芯片不用耗费更多的能量就可以加快计算的速度。该公司还开发了一种叫做“远程唤醒”的技术可以使计算机在使用者不需要通过网络检索文件的时候保持低耗能的模式。惠普开发了一个叫做自动开关的新功能，可以不在工作状态的打印机进入休眠模式，一旦再次使用，又会很快地恢复到工作模式。惠普2009年生产的个人桌面激光打印机就已经安装了这项功能。惠普公司还将注意力优先放在了制造材料上，他们生产的一款喷墨打印机就是由83%的回收塑料制造的。
专家表示，就对环境的影响而言，对旧电脑再利用，让其避免流入垃圾场填埋比买台新电脑更好。
1.Why are computer manufacturers considering developing greener products? Because they want to meet the requirements of environmentally conscious consumers.2.Compared to the old computer, the price of the greener machine is_____.A little bit more expensive.3.From the three examples, Lenovo, Intel and HP, we can know that_______.Companies want to stay ahead of environmental legislation and to get good impression from green investors.On the other hand they are trying to appeal to people who want to save their expenses because of high energy price。4.What is the function of Auto-On /Auto-Off? It can put inactive printers into a sleep mode and can quickly power back up once used again.5.What does the last sentence in the last paragraph mean? Don't throw your old computer away as trash in order to keep the environment clean.7、Cell Phones手机
What would life look like without cell phones? Today's hottest selling mobile phones are now loaded with features such as MP3 music players, TV, music and wireless photo printing.Cell phones have changed so much in the past few years that with every new product launch comes another big dilemma for the cellular manufacturers.How do you create the next big hit? How does the manufacturer separate the hits fiom the gimmicks, while trying to decipher what cell phone users really want or need in the near future? Industry insiders say the most popular phones will have advanced functions that are simple to customize for individual tastes.Manufacturers believe that the success of the cell phone lies in the building and development of high-speed networks-to deliver services like video, music and high speed Internet.While these networks are now in operation the industry insiders are considering radical redesigns to phones, displays and services to ensure the new features are simple to use.Such developments, combined with software that allows users to customize their cell phone browser for services such as sports scores or news, could replace PDAs and other-gadgets.Cellular companies are also betting consumers will soon use phones for everything from watching TV to studying and writing school exams.Developers should now concentrate on designing exciting new looks for phones, since few things have more direct influence over a consumer's fickle buying behavior than the emotional response that the shape,color or look of a phone evokes.没有手机的生活会变得怎么样呢？今天畅销的手机都有MP3播放器、电视、音乐、无线相片打印等功能。手机在过去几年里的变化非常大，随着每次新产品的问世，手机制造商们都会再次陷入苦恼之中。该怎么创造下一代人气商品呢？制造商该怎样做才能了解手机使用者们不久的将来真正想要的东西，并且区分畅销与滞销的产品呢？业内人士指出最受欢迎的手机是具有能够简单地迎合顾客个人喜好的尖端功能的手机。
制造商相信手机的成功取决于高速网络的构建和开发以提供如影像或视频、音乐、高速互联网的服务。在这些网络运营的同时，业内人士正在考虑将电话、显示屏以及服务进行彻底的重新设计，使其新的功能使用简化。这些开发产品结合了一种让使用者可以在手机浏览器上定制体育比赛得分或新闻等服务的软件，可以代替PDA（掌上电脑）和其它装置。手机制造商确信，在不久的将来，消费者将用手机完成一切事务，从看电视到学习和学校考试。开发商们现在应当集中精力设计外形更吸引入的新手机，因为除了手机的外形、颜色或款式所引起的情绪反应外，还几乎没有别的东西对消费者多变的购买行为起到更直接的影响。
1、What are the features of today's mobile phones? They are loaded with(features such as)MP3 music players, TV, music and wireless photo printing.2、What will manufactures face if they produce a new product? They will face a big dilemma.3、What should the most popular phones have? The most popular phones should have advanced functions to customize for individual tastes.4、What will people do with cell phones in the future? People will use phones for everything from watching TV to studying and writing school exams.5、Why does the writer mention “the emotional response” in the last sentence? Because he thinks that it affects customers' buying behavior.8、Touch Tech触屏技术
For mobile touch technology, it's only the beginning.Apple Inc.'s phone revolutionized the mobile phone with easy-to-use touch-screen technology that allows users to surf the Web, tap out messages or control any number of inventive applications.Developers are working on new applications for “multi-touch” screens.These screens can process commands the user gives with more than one finger, which broadens the possibilities for application.Other developers are working on advances in “haptic” feedback---vibrations and other physical sensations that are now used, for instance, to let a gamer know she's reached a new level, but that can also be used to communicate emotions and may soon give a touch-screen keyboard the feel of a physical keyboard.And for those who still prefer to work with keys on their phones, even some traditional keyboards will perform certain functions in response to touch commands.Software developers set to work on multi-touch applications.Some, for instance, allow users to play virtual musical instruments on the phone.But multi-touch developers have largely focused on games.Haptic technology already has many non-mobile applications.In videogames, for instance, it can give gamers the sensation of actually steering a car they're controlling on the screen.In medical training, it can make procedures like endoscopy performed on a simulator feel real, so that medical personnel can develop a better sense of how to perform them.The use of haptics in mobile phones is still in its infancy, but the wider deployment of haptic enabled phones will open the door to new applications.For now, at least many mobile users prefer the accuracy of a physical keyboard rather than a touch screen.A new technology is being designed to allow the best of both worlds: a keyboard that can also respond to touch commands.就移动触摸技术而言，现在只是刚刚开始。苹果公司的电话产品使移动电话行业产生了突破性变革，其便利的触摸屏技术可以便于用户浏览网络、发送短信或者掌控许多新颖应用软件。
开发人员正致力于新“多触点”屏幕的应用研究。这些屏幕可以处理用户用多手指同时给出的指令，这也增加了这项技术被应用的可能性。其他开发人员正在研究“触觉”反馈的升级技术——即现在所应用的震动和其它物理感知技术，它们不但可用来提醒游戏玩家已经过关，也可以用来进行情感交流，并且有可能很快就能使触摸屏具有真实键盘的触觉。对于那些更喜欢使用手机键盘的人来说，即便传统的键盘也将能发挥与触摸指令相对应的功能。
软件开发人员开始研发多触点应用软件。例如，有些软件可以使用户在电话上弹奏虚拟乐器。但是多触点开发人员主要以开发游戏为主。
触觉技术已经在非移动领域得到了广泛应用。例如，在视频游戏中，它可以让游戏玩家感到自己好像真的在驾驶他们所控制的荧屏赛车。在医疗培训中，它可以让在模拟器上操作的内窥镜检测法等程序感觉异常真实，从而使医疗人员能更自如地操作这些仪器。触觉技术在手机方面的使用仍然处于初创阶段，但是触觉技术手机的广泛运用将为这项技术得以更多、更新的应用开辟新的途径。
目前看来，至少还有许多手机用户仍然偏爱物理键盘的准确性，他们对触摸屏并不十分感兴趣。开发人员正在设计一项可以兼顾这两种需求的新技术：即可以同时回应触摸指令的物理键盘。
1、Why do we say Apple's iPhone is a revolution Because Apple is the first to develop a new technology called easy-to-touch-screen.2、What is the advantage of multi-touch screen? The screens can process commands the user gives with more than one finger.3、What is the haptic feedback technology? It is vibrations and physical sensations.4、What do gamers feel if they use haptic technology in videogames? The gamers feel that they have the actual sensation when they play games.5、Why do many people like a physical keyboard nowadays? Because they like the accuracy of a physical keyboard.9、Fossil Fuels and Our Life化石燃料与我们的生活
Oil and natural gas are an important part of our everyday life.Not only do they give us mobility, they heat and cool our homes and provide electricity.Millions of products are made from oil and gas, including plastics, life-saving medications, clothing, cosmetics, and many other items you may use daily.In the United States, 97% of the energy that drives the transportation sector(cars, buses, subways, railroads, airplanes, etc.)comes from fuels made from oil.Auto manufacturers are developing cars to run on alternate fuels such as electricity, hydrogen and ethanol.However, the electric batteries need to be charged and the fuel to generate the electricity could be oil or gas.The hydrogen needed for fuel cells could also be generated from natural gas or petroleum-based products.Even as alternative fuels are developed, oil will be crucially important to assuring that people can get where they need to be and want to go for the foreseeable future.In areas of the world that are still developing, businesses and individuals are demanding greater mobility for themselves and their products.World vehicle ownership is projected to increase from 122 vehicles per thousand people in 1999 to 144 vehicles per thousand in 2020, with the growth occurring in developing nations.Airports are being added in these countries as well, expanding jet fuel demand.Oil is expected to remain the primary fuel source for transportation throughout the world for the foreseeable future, and transportation fuels are projected to account for almost 57% of total world oil consumption by 2020.World population is currently around 6 billion peoplet but is expected to grow to approximately 7.6 billion by 2020.That will mean a huge increase in the demand for transportation fuels, electricity, and many other consumer products made from oil and natural gas.石油与天然气是我们日常生活的重要组成部分。它们不仅使我们出行方便，它们还可以使我们的住所冬暖夏凉并且为我们提供电力。我们日常生活中的许多物品都是由石油和天然气制成的，如塑料、治病救人的药品、服装、化妆品等等。
在美国，交通运输系统（私人汽车、公共汽车、地铁、火车、飞机等）的运行所依赖的能源中有97%来自石油炼制的燃料。虽然汽车制造商们正在研制使用像电、氢气和乙醇这样的替代能源作为燃料的汽车，但是，汽车电池需要充电而且电池发电所用的燃料仍可能是石油或天然气。燃料电池所需要的氢气也可能是由天然气或石油产品制成的。所以，尽管人们在研制开发替代燃料，在可预测的将来，能够确保人们出行便利的重要能源仍然是石油。
在全世界的发展中地区，不论企业还是个人，不论是为了自己方便还是为销售公司的产品，对交通出行的需求都大大增加。据预测世界汽车保有量将由1999年的每千人122辆增加至2020年的每千人144辆，这些增加的部分都是来自发展中国家。同样在这些发展中国家，由于机场也在扩建，所以航空燃料的需求也在不断增长。在可预测的将来，石油仍将是世界各地交通的主要能源，预计到2020年交通燃料将占全世界石油消耗总量的57%。
目前世界人口为60亿，但是到2020年将会增至约76亿。这将意味着人们对石油和天气制成的交通燃料、电力以及其它消费产品需求的大量增加。
1.According to the text, how important is oil to our life? Oil and gas give us mobility, they heat and cool our homes and provide electricity.They can also be made into many products that we use every day.2.What is a disadvantage of electric batteries used in automobiles? They must be charged and the fuel to generate the electricity could be oil or gas.3.Can altemate energy completely replace oil and gas in the foreseeable future? Why? No, it can't.Oil and gas will still be crucially important to assuring that people can get where they need to be and want to go for the foreseeable future.4.Where in the world can we see the big increase in car ownership? In the developing world.5.What will the increase of world population indicate? That will mean a huge increase in the demand for transportation fuels, electricity, and many other consumer products made from oil and natural gas.10、Carbon Emissions碳排放
The task---in which carbon emissions are pumped into underground reservoir rather than released---is challenging for any fuel source, but particularly so for coal, which produces more carbon dioxide than oil or natural gas.Under optimal current conditions, coal produces more than twice as much carbon dioxide per unit of electricity as natural gas, the second most common fuel used for electricity generation.In the developing world, where even new coal plants use lower grade coal and less efficient machinery, the equation is even worse.Without carbon capture and storage, coal cannot be green.But solving that problem will take global coordination and billions of dollars in investment, which no one country or company seems inclined to spend.There are a few dozen small demonstration projects in Europe and in the United States, most in the early stages.But progress has not been promising.The European Union had pledged to develop 12 pilot carbon-capture projects for Europe.Many have likened carbon capture's road from the demonstration lab to a safe, cheap, available reality as a challenge equivalent to putting a man on the moon.Norway, which is investing heavily to test the technology, calls carbon capture its ‘moon landing'.Then there is the problem of storing the carbon dioxide, which is at some level an inherently local issue.Geologists have to determine if there is a suitable underground site, calculate how much carbon dioxide it can hold and then equip it in a way that prevents leaks and ensures safety.A large leak of underground carbon dioxide could be as dangerous as a leak of nuclear fuel.将燃料燃烧排放出的二氧化碳注入地下而不是排放到空气中这项任务对于任何一种燃料的碳排放处理都是一件艰巨的工作。尤其对于煤炭来说，这项任务就更为困难，因为煤炭燃烧比石油和天然气燃烧所排放出的二氧化碳更多。
在最佳燃烧状况下，每发一个单位电所燃烧煤炭而产生的二氧化碳是燃烧天然气的两倍。天然气是发电使用的第二大燃料。在发展中国家，情况则更糟，因为那里所使用的煤炭及发电设备都是低档次的。
如果不进行碳集合封存，煤炭不可能成为绿色能源。但是解决这一问题不仅需要全球的共同努力，也需要花费数以十亿计甚至更多的投资，而没有任何一个国家和公司愿意花费这笔投资。
虽然在欧洲和美国人们为此进行了一些小规模的试验项目，但这些项目都刚刚兴起，并没有取得什么实质性的进展。欧盟已经承诺在欧洲建设12个试验性碳捕获项目。很多国家也已经将碳捕获这项任务从实验室转化为安全、低价的实际应用，但他们都把这项任务比作把人送往月球那么难。挪威正在对此大量投资做技术测试，他们就把碳捕获称为“月球登陆计划”。
碳捕获之后面临的问题就是碳封存。碳封存从某种程度上来说则属于地域问题。地质学家们需要确定地下是否有合适的地点，计算其对二氧化碳的存储量，然后再配备设施防止二氧化碳的泄漏以确保安全。地下二氧化碳一旦发生大量泄漏，就如同核燃料泄漏一样危险。1.In paragraph l, what does the underlined word “so” refer to? The word “so” refers to “challenging”.2.What can be learned about carbon emissions in the coal plants in developing countries? The coal used in the coal plants is low grade and the machineries there are less efficient.As a result, produce much more carbon dioxide per unit of electricity.3.How can the use of coal become “green”? Coal can become 'green' through carbon capture and storage.4.According to the text, what has Norway been doing? Norway has been investing heavily in developing carbon capture technology.5.What is the biggest concern of storing carbon at an underground site? The carbon stored at an underground site could leak, and a large leak of underground carbon dioxide could be as dangerous as a leak of nuclear fuel.11、Marine Pollution海洋污染
By the year 2050 it is estimated that the world's population could have increased to around 12 billion.Of these, some 60 percent will live within 60km of the sea.The agricultural and industrial activities required to support this population will increase the already significant pressures on fertile coastal areas.One significant impact of human activity is marine pollution.The most visible and familiar is oil pollution caused by tanker accidents and tank washing at sea.Despite the scale and visibility of such impacts, the total quantities of pollutants entering the sea from the long line of catastrophic oil spills appeared small compared with those of pollutants introduced directly and indirectly from other sources(including domestic sewage, industrial discharges, leakages, urban and industrial run-off, accidents, spillages, explosions, sea dumping operations, oil production, mining, agriculture nutrients and pesticides, waste heat sources and radioactive discharges).Nutrient pollution from sewage discharges and agriculture can result in unsightly and possibly dangerous “blooms” of algae in coastal waters.As these blooms die and decay they use up the oxygen in the water, this led, in some areas, to “creeping dead zones”.Radioactive pollution has many causes, including the normal operation of nuclear power stations.Radioactive elements traceable to reprocessing can be found in seaweeds as far away as the West Greenland Coast.Trace metal pollution from metal mining, production and processing industries can damage the health of marine plants and animals and render some sea foods unfit for human consumption.到2050年，估计世界人口可能会增加到120亿。其中大约有60%的人口居住在距离海洋60公里的范围内。为养活这些人口而进行的农业和工业活动将会加大富饶的沿海地区已面临的巨大压力。
人类活动产生的一个重大影响是海洋污染。最显而易见和为人熟知的是油轮事故和在海洋里清洗油箱所造成的油污染。
虽然这些影响有一定的规模、且显而易见，但是，与其它直接和间接的海洋污染源（包括民用污水、工业排放物、废料堆泄漏、都市和工业污染排放物、事故、泄漏、爆炸、向海洋倾泄垃圾的行为、石油生产、采矿、农业肥料和杀虫剂、热源废料和放射性排放物）相比，一系列油轮发生灾难性油泄漏而造成的海洋污染物质总量还是显得很少。
污水排放物和农业生产所造成的肥料污染使海岸水域里的藻类开出难看而且可能危险的花朵。这些花朵死亡和腐烂将耗尽水里的氧气，使这些地区变成了“逐渐蔓延的死亡区”。
放射性污染有很多原因，包括正常运转的核电站。远在格陵兰岛西部海岸的海草里都能发现核燃料再处理所产生的放射性元素。
金属采矿、生产和加工所造成的微量金属污染会损害海洋植物和动物的健康，使一些海产品不再适合人类食用。
1.Why is it difficult to support the population on fertile coastal areas by the year 2050? Because 60% of the world's population will live within 60km of the sea.2.How many kinds of sea pollutions are mentioned in the passage? What are they? There are four: marine pollution, nutrient pollution, radioactive pollution, trace metal pollution.3.What is mentioned as the most visible and familiar marine pollution? Oil pollution.4.Marine life dies in creeping dead zones because of the lack of____.Oxygen.5.The West Greenland Coast has been polluted by _____.Radioactive elements.12、China's Growth and the Clean Energy Tech中国的经济增长与清洁能源技术
China's unprecedented growth in recent years has come at a terrible price.Two-thirds of its rivers and lakes are too polluted for industrial use, let alone agriculture or drinking.Just l in 100 of China's nearly 600 million city dwellers breathes air that would be considered safe in Europe.At a time when arable land is in short supply, poisoned floodwaters have ruined many productive fields.The immensity of these troubles has produced a result that may surprise many outside China: The nation has emerged as an incubator for clean technology, vaulting to the forefront in several categories.Among all countries, China is now the largest producer of photovoltaic solar panels, thanks to such homegrown manufacturers as Suntech Power.The country is the world's second largest market for wind turbines.In car-making, China's BYD Auto has leapfrogged global giants, launching the first mass-produced hybrid that plugs into an electrical outlet.Understanding they are in a global race, China's leaders are supporting businesses with policies and incentives.Beijing recently hiked China's auto mileage standards to a level the U.S.is not expected to reach until 2020.Beijing also says it will boost the country's share of electricity created from renewable sources to 23% by 2020 from 16% today, on par with similar targets in Europe.Beijing's green intentions will soon be put to the test.China is in the midst of the biggest building boom in history.A study estimates that over 350 million people will migrate from the countryside into cities by 2025.Five million buildings will be added, including 50,000 skyscrapers---equal to 10 New York Cities.And as new offices and houses multiply, they are filled with energy-hungry computers, TVs, air conditioners, and the like, sharply increasing demand for electricity, which comes mainly from coal-powered plants.中国近年来史无前例的经济增长是以可怕的代价换来的。中国2/3的河流湖泊污染严重，无法用于工业，更别说农业或饮用了。中国近6亿城市人口中只有1%的人呼吸着按欧洲标准堪称安全的空气。在可耕地紧缺之际，受到污染的洪水又毁坏了大量良田。
诸如此类的众多问题却产生了一个令很多国外人士感到惊讶的结果：中国逐渐成为清洁技术的培育基地，在若干领域走到了前列。凭借尚德太阳能电力有限公司等本土厂商，中国现在是世界上最大的光电太阳能电池板生产国。中国也是全球第二大风电机组市场。在汽车制造方面，中国的比亚迪汽车有限公司已超过全球汽车巨头，推出了第一款可大批量生产的充电式混合动力车。
中国领导人认识到了他们正处于一场全球竞赛中，于是以各种政策和激励措施对企业予以扶持。北京前不久将中国的汽车里程标准大幅提高到美国估计要到2020年才能达到的水平。北京还表示，到2020年，中国的可再生性资源发电量所占比例将从目前的16%上升到23%，与欧洲的类似指标不相上下。北京的绿色环保意向很快将受到考验。中国正处于有史以来最大的建筑热潮中。一项研究估计，到2025年，中国将有超过3.5亿人从农村迁入城市。中国将新增500万幢建筑，包括5万幢摩天大楼，相当于10座纽约市的规模。随着新建办公室和房屋的成倍增长，那些耗费能源的计算机、电视、空调等设备也要装备到这些建筑中，这就大量增加了电力的需求，而大部分电力是来自以煤做燃料的发电厂。
1、What are some of the downsides to China's growth? Rivers, lakes and air are seriously polluted.Water and agricultural land have been poisoned.2、According to the passage, how many people in China breathe safe air? 6 million.3、What can be learned about Suntech Power? It is a domestic(homegrown)manufacturer of photovoltaic solar panels.4、What are Beijing's green intentions? Beijing will boost the country's share of electricity created from renewable sources to 23% by 2020.5、What will be increased sharply by the year 2025 in China? City population.13、Market Economy市场经济
There are pros and cons for command and market economies.Let's look at the command economy first.The foundation of it is that it is directed and controlled by a centralized government.A command economy means that the government is involved in every step.There are other downsides to a command economy.Often factories don't meet quotas, needs are underestimated, and a product could sell too quickly, and so on.Basically things have to be adjusted.Production and prices might have to be increased or decreased;there might be restrictions on the number of items a person could buy.Now let's look at the market economy.That means private enterprise with the government not making the decisions.Here's how it works.We'll use the example of clothing.Maybe somebody---say Jack---decides to open a company making clothes.He designs and makes them fashionable so people will want to buy and wear them.If the clothes become popular then Jack can mcrease the price and keep increasing it.By doing this Jack can make more profit and or expand his business to make even more money.At the same time other people will have noticed how well he is doing and will start up new businesses in competition.This way prices will level off or even come down because people will buy the thing costing less.The companies will have to cut costs, and perhaps do with less profit to stay in business.In this case the market economy is the way to go.With a command economy the government runs everything and everybody, but with a market economy the government supposedly provides assistance only to correct problems that can't be solved by the market.With a command economy come chronic shortages, inefficiencies.On the other hand, the market economy offers greater opportunities for economic growth, technological progress and prosperity.计划经济和市场经济各有利弊。首先我们来看一下计划经济。计划经济的基础是由中央集权的政府指导和控制。计划经济意味着政府涉足经济生活的每一步。计划经济还有其它的负面影响。工厂经常会达不到配额，市场的需求会被低估，一种产品可能会很快销售一空等等。总的来说必须做出调整：产品和价格可能不得不或升或降；也可能会限制人们购买产品的数量等等。
现在我们来看一下市场经济。这意味着企业私有制而政府并不能为它们做任何决定。我们用服装行业的例子来说明它的运行方式。假如某人，我们就叫他杰克，决定开一家服装制造公司。他设计和制造时尚的服装，使人们愿意购买和穿着。如果服装受欢迎，杰克会提高价格，并维持价格的攀升。通过这种方式，杰克可获取更大的利润。或者通过扩展业务，创造更多的财富。与此同时，别人将注意到他做的很优秀，于是这些人将创办新的企业与杰克竞争。这样价格将稳定下来，甚至可能降低，因为人们都愿意买更便宜的衣服。各家公司将不得不降低成本、减少利润，使自己在行业内得以生存。在这种情况下，市场经济才是正确的方向。
在计划经济下，政府掌管每件事和每个人：而在市场经济下，政府提供帮助来解决市场不能解决的问题。计划经济逐渐导致长期物质短缺和效率低下。另一方面，市场经济能够更大程度地带来经济增长、技术进步和社会繁荣的良机。
1.What is the role of government in the command economy? The economy is directed, controlled by the centralized government.2.What might be restricted in the command economy? How much of an item a person can buy.3.What is the market economy? Market economy means private enterprise with the government not making the decisions.4.Who is Jack according to the text? Jack is a virtual person who owns a company that makes clothes.5.What does the market economy provide? The market economy provides / offers greater opportunities for economic growth, technological progress and prosperity.14、CPI消费者物价指数
If the CPI, Consumer Price Index was 2.1% in a country, what does that mean? In a nutshell, it means that consumers in that country paid 2.1% more than in the previous year for the goods and services included in the CPI basket.Although prices of goods and services rise and fall over time, when prices change too dramatically, they can have negative effects on an economy.In order to tell if an economy is experiencing inflation, deflation or stagflation, we use the CPI as a gauge of the prices ofgoods and services.When the Department of Labor's Bureau of Labor Statistic releases the CPI data monthly, the CPI's results are widely anticipated and watched.Who would eagerly await the results, you might ask? Well, the CPI plays an important role for many key financial decision makers, including individual investors, the Central Banks and the Federal Reserve in the U.S.The CPI helps central banks forecast the interest-rate policy and other decisions of major banks and corporations.I mentioned the CPI basket before and now I want to expand on what this basket is and how we get the information.The base-year market basket, which makes up the CPI, comes from detailed expenditure information collected from surveys of thousands of families.The information is not randomly collected, instead, the information is gathered through interviews and diaries kept by participants who have agreed to disclose their buying habits.The basket is divided into eight groups: food and beverages, housing, apparel, transportation, medical care, recreation, education and communication and other goods and services, and includes more than 200 categories.Finally, the prices of 80,000 items in the market basket are collected monthly from thousands of retail stores, service establishments, rental units, and doctors' offices.如果某个国家的消费者物价指数为2.1%，那意味着什么？简单地说，这意味着这个国家的消费者为消费者物价指数篮子里的商品及服务的支出比上一年多了2.1%。虽然商品和服务的价格随时间而上下波动，但是如果价格变动幅度过大，则会给经济带来负面影响。为了说明经济是否正在经历通货膨胀、通货紧缩或者是滞胀，我们把CPI作为衡量商品及服务价格的尺度。
劳工部劳动数据统计局每月公布CPI数据的时候，很多人都期待并关注CPI结果。你或许会问什么人会热切地等待着这些结果？CPI对许多重要的财政决策者来说起着重要的作用，其中包括个人投资者、中央银行和美国联邦贮备银行。CPI帮助中央银行预测主要银行和企业的利息政策和其它决策。
前面提到过CPI篮子，现在我想进一步说明一下这个篮子是什么，以及我们如何获取信息。组成CPI的基本年度市场篮子是在调查了成千上万户家庭的详细支出信息之后得出的。这些信息不是随机搜集来的，而是通过对那些愿意公开自己购买习惯的消费者所进行采访和记录中得到的信息。基本篮子可分为8个组，包括了200多个种类，食品和饮料、住宅、服装、交通工具、医疗、休闲、教育和通讯以及其它商品的服务。最后，市场篮子中的8万件物品的价格是从成千上万个零售商店、服务部门、租赁店、诊所等的每个月汇总中得来的。1.What is CPI short for? Consumer Price Index.2.What does that indicate if CPI is 3.3% in a country this year? Consumers in a country have to pay 3.3% more than in the previous year for the goods and services.3.What will happen if prices change a lot? They can have negative effects on an economy.4.Who are eager to await the results of the CPI? Why? Many key financial decision makers.Because the CPI plays an important role for them.5.How is the information of the CPI basket collected? The information is collected through interviews and diaries kept by the participants.15、The Internet互联网 The Internet is the largest repository of information which can provide very large network resources.The network resources can be divided into network facilities resources and network information resources.The network facilities resources provide us the ability of remote computation and communication.The network information resources provide us all kinds of information services, such as science, education, business, history, law, art, and entertainment, etc.The most commonly used network service is electronic mail.Mail permits network users to send textual messages to each other.Computers and networks handle delivering the mail, so that communicating mail users do not have to handle details of delivery, and do not have to be present at the same time or place.Before you can use the Internet, you must choose a way to move data between the Internet and your PC.This link may be a high-speed data communication circuit, a local area network(LAN), a telephone line or a radio channel.Most likely, you will use a Modem attached to your telephone line to talk to the Internet.Worldwide web(www.xiexiebang.community.So we can say that the Internet is your PC's window to the rest of the world.互联网是最大的信息宝库，它可以提供非常巨大的网络资源。这种网络资源可分为网络设备资源和网络信息资源。网络设备资源使我们能够进行远程计算和通信。网络信息资源为我们提供各种各样的信息服务，如科学、教育、商务、历史、法律、艺术和娱乐等等。
最常被使用的网络服务是电子邮件。电子邮件允许网络用户彼此传送文本消息。计算机和网络负责传递邮件，这样一来，邮件用户不必关心传递的细节，而且没有必要在同一时间或地点出现。
在上网之前，你必须选择一种方法，在网络和你自己的电脑之间移动数据。这个连接可能是一个高速数据通信线路、局域网(LAN)、电话线或无线频道。大多数情况下，你可以使用一个连接到你的电话线上的调制解调器来实现网络连接。
万维网(www.xiexiebang.computation and communication and also provide us all kinds of information services 3.Why do most people choose the Internet to deliver e-mails nowadays? Because it is the fastest and most convenient way 4.What is the most possible way you choose to move data between the Internet and your PC? Using a Modem attached to the telephone line.5.Why do people regard the Net as a community in the near future? Because people can get and do whatever they want at home as more and more systems join the Internet and more and more forms of information are available to the amount of Internet users.16、Apple Expands its Touchy-Feely Vision 苹果公司用iPad延续梦想
The launch of Apple’s iPad in the US is a polarizing moment.The television news lingers on the queues outside Apple stores, and fans are seen drooling over these latest shiny objects of techno-lust.Doubters, meanwhile, point out that general purpose tablet-style computers such as this have always bombed beforewithout major technological breakthroughs2010 targets.The practical conclusion is that if global warming is potential disaster, the only solution is new technology.Only an aggressive research and development program might find ways of breaking our dependence on fossil fuels or dealing with it.全球变暖或许是也或许不是21世纪的环境大危机。但不管是与否，我们都不会采取什么措施。我们会对其争论不休，甚至作为一个国家发表一些听起来庄重的誓言来避免全球变暖。但这些誓言听起来越激动人心、越意味深长，实现它们的可能性却越小。
美国前副总统戈尔将全球变暖称作“令人不快的真相”，似乎只要我们认识到这个真相就可以找到解决这一问题的途径。但是实际的真相是我们并没有足够的能力消除全球变暖；若没有重大的科技突破，我们根本无能为力。
2003年至2050年世界人口预计将增长42%，即从64亿增长至91亿。如果人均消耗能源和科技水平不变，到2050年，能源消耗总量和温室气体排放将增加42%。但是这只是一个保守数字，因为社会的进步和富足意味着更多的能源消耗。经济发展是必需的，除非不再提高人们的生活水准，让世界上的贫困人口永远过贫穷的生活。但即使经济保守地发展，到2050年，能源消耗及温室气体排放也会增加一倍多。
任何政府都不会采取刚性的措施限制经济发展和个人自由（如：限制用电量、开车出行、外出旅行等），尽管这样的措施会减缓全球变暖。但是政治家们依然想证明他们没有对全球变暖“置之不理”。“京都议定书”就是个实例。其中规定所有签约国家有权利惩罚那些非签约国。但是“京都议定书”并没有使二氧化碳的排放有所减少，况且很多签约国也并没有采取足够严厉的措施以实现2008witness the damage wreaked by apparently small misjudgments about subprime mortgages.This is Nassim Nicholas Taleb's message when he warns of “black swans”.Every now and then something unlikely but very important happens.当肆虐的冰岛火山喷发把我困在赫尔辛基时，我注意到与我有类似遭遇的同事和那些没有旅行计划的同事之间存在严重的意见分歧。对于我，这就是世界末日。对于那些安全地待在英国的同事而言，火山灰云不过是关注欧元危机和英国大选等重要事件之余的一点谈资而已。
我开始设想一些可怕的场景。还有什么是依赖于航空的？肯尼亚的鲜花业务依赖于航空，但它对肯尼亚人的重要性要远远超过我们。没有沙拉，我们同样可以生存。但别的呢？我依赖手机，但假若手机网络在伦敦的哈克尼出现了故障，而知道如何修理的系统工程师也被困在了赫尔辛基，该怎么办？如果伯明翰的生产线出现故障，而修理所需的零配件在名古屋怎么办？情况开始看上去比惹恼一些脾气暴躁的旅客更为严重，特别是埃亚菲亚德拉火山可能持续爆发几年。而附近矗立的另一座更大的火山卡特拉显示出了在埃亚菲亚德拉火山喷发后不久也会喷发的迹象。我刚看过一幅关于冰岛9座“主火山”的地图，埃亚菲亚德拉不在其中。
即使火山灰云经常出现，市场经济往往也具有惊人的活力。日本神户大地震或者9.11恐怖袭击等可怕事件几乎都没有对全球经济产生持久性影响。尽管航空旅行的持续中断会损害一些行业，但其它行业会从中受益。我们会用本地蔬菜替代沙拉，企业可以将核心员工迁往别处，持有更多库存以防航空服务中断，我们会顺应环境。
我们真的会吗？在一个像欧洲经济一样复杂的体系中，我们很难对某一事件所产生的影响抱有绝对信心，看看对次级抵押贷款做出的明显微小的误判所带来的损害吧。这就是纳西姆·尼古拉斯·塔雷伯对“黑天鹅”发出警告时所传递的信息。一些看似不可能但又非常重要的事件时有发生。
1.What is the different impact of ash cloud on the author and the people in UK? For the author, it was the end of the world.But for the people who stay safely in the UK, the ash cloud was not a very important thing at all, comparing with the Euro crisis and British election.2.Summarize all the categories of things that depended on air travel? The Kenyan flower business, salads, the system engineer, the components to fix certain machines and frequent flyers.3.Why have “market economies tended to be surprisingly resilient”? Because other sectors would benefit if some sectors would suffer from sustained disruption to air travel.4.What does the author mean by “others would benefit”? For example, we'd substitute local vegetables for salads, while businesses would relocate essential staff and hold more inventory to allow for disruptions.5.What does “black swans” mean in the passage? Every now and then something unlikely but very important happens.30、Project Management项目管理
Project management is the application of knowledge, skills, tools and techniques to project activities to meet project requirements.Project management is accomplished through the application and integration of the project management processes of initiating, planning, executing, monitoring and controlling, and closing.The project manager is the person responsible for accomplishing the project objectives.Managing a project includes: identifying requirements;establishing clear and achievable objectives;balancing the competing demands for quality, scope, time and cost and adapting the specifications, plans, and approach to the different concerns and expectations of the various stakeholders.Project managers often talk of a “triple constraint”---project scope, time and cost---in managing competing project requirements.Project quality is affected by balancing these three factors.High quality projects deliver the required product, service or result within scope, on time, and within budget.The relationship among these factors is such that if any one of the three factors changes, at least one other factor is likely to be affected.Project managers also manage projects in response to uncertainty.Project risk is an uncertain event or condition that, if it occurs, has a positive or negative effect on at least one project objective.The project management team has a professional responsibility to its stakeholders including customers, the performing organization, and the public.It is important to note that many of the processes within project management are iterative because of the existence of progressive elaboration in a project throughout the project's life cycle.That is, as a project management team learns more about a project, the team can then manage to a greater level of detail.项目管理就是将各种知识、技能、手段和技术应用到项目活动中，以满足项目的各项要求。项目管理是通过启动、计划、执行、监控和关闭这几个阶段的实施和整合来实现的。项目经理则是对实现项目目标负责的那个人。
管理一个项目包括以下几个部分：分析项目要求，确立清晰并可实现的目标，权衡质量、范围、时间和成本间的竞争水平，并依照行业规范和项目计划采取相应办法满足利益相关者的要求和期望。
项目经理们经常谈到的“三重制约”是指项目的范围、时间和成本。这三者的权衡关系到项目完成的质量。高质量项目一定是在计划的范围、时间和预算成本之内完成并达到项目要求。这三个因素间有着密切的关系，其中一个因素的改变会影响到至少其它一个因素也发生变化。项目经理的另外一项责任就是应对项目的不确定因素。项目风险就是一种不确定的事件或条件，一旦出现风险，它可能会给至少一个项目目标带来正面或负面的影响。项目管理团队还对客户、组织机构和公众等这些利益相关者负有职业责任。
还需要注意的一点是项目管理的很多阶段是重复发生的，这是因为在项目建设周期中需要不断地对项目进行完善。也就是说，随着项目管理团队对项目了解的增多，项目管理团队就能达到更精细化经营的水平。
1.What are the processes of project management? Initiating, planning, executing, monitoring and controlling, and closing.2.What are the four things a project manager should do when managing a project? Identify the requirements;establish clear and achievable objectives;balance the competing demands for quality, scope, time and cost and adapt the specifications, plans, and approach to the different concerns and expectations of the various stakeholders.3.What does “triple constraint” imply? And how does it affect the quality of project? “Triple Constraint” implies the project scope, time and cost.Project quality is affected by balancing these three factors.4.Who are the stakeholders to the project management team? Customers, the performing organization, and the public.5.Why are the processes of project management often iterative? Because the project has to be progressively elaborated throughout the project's life cycle and as a project management team learns more about a project, the team can then manage to a greater level of detail.二、短文英译汉
l、Origin of Oil and Gas石油和天然气的成因
Oil and gas result mostly from dead microorganisms buried quickly in anoxic environments, where oxygen is so scarce that they do not decompose.This lack of oxygen enables them to maintain their hydrogen-carbon bonds, a necessary ingredient for the production of fossil fuels.Newly developing ocean basins, formed by plate tectonics and continental rifting(deformation), provide just the right conditions for rapid burial in anoxic waters.Rivers fill these basins with sediments carrying abundant organic remains.Because the basins have constricted water circulation, they also have lower oxygen levels than the open ocean.Plate tectonics is also responsible for creating the “pressure cooker” that slowly matures the organics into oil and gas.This process usually takes millions ofyears, giving the oil and gas deposits time to migrate around the globe on the back of plate movements.Because these hydrocarbons are much more buoyant than water, they eventually force their way to the surface.Alternatively, rifting, collisions between landmasses, and other tectonic forces can free the mature oil and gas from deep within sedimentary basins and then trap these organic fluids in reservoirs before they escape to the earth's surface.We know these reservoirs as oil and gas fields.The same plate tectonics that creates the locations and conditions for anoxic burial is also responsible for the geologic paths that these sedimentary basins subsequently take.Continental drift, subduction(where one plate thrusts under another)and collision with other continents provide the movement from swamps, river deltas and mild climates---where most organics are deposited---to the poles and deserts, where they have ended up today by coincidence.石油和天然气大多是由缺氧环境下迅速被掩埋的死亡微生物生成的。这种环境氧气奇缺致使这些微生物无法分解。氧气的缺乏能够使那些死去的微生物保持它们的碳氢键——这是产生化石燃料的一种必要组分。由板块构造运动和大陆裂谷作用（变形）而新近演化形成的大洋盆地，正好为在缺氧水域的快速埋藏提供了合适环境。河流携带着丰富的有机残余物充填这些盆地。由于这些盆地的水循环受到局限。因此，它们的含氧量比开阔大洋更低。
板块构造还形成了一个使有机质缓慢成熟演化成石油和天然气的“压力锅”。油气生成过程通常要经历数百万年，从而为在板块运动背景下油气的运移提供了时间。因为烃类化合物比水的浮力大，所以它们最终会竭力上升到地表。同时裂谷作用，板块之间的碰撞以及其它构造力可以将沉积盆地深处成熟的石油或者天然气释放出来，并在这些有机流体逸散到地表之前，将它们圈闭在油气藏中，我们称这些油气藏为油气田。
为缺氧条件下微生物的埋藏提供了空间和条件的板块构造运动同样对这些沉积盆地的后期地质演化起着重要作用。大陆漂移、俯冲（一个板块俯冲到另一板块之下的过程）以及和其它大陆的碰撞作用能使沼泽、河流三角洲和温带气候区（大部分有机质沉积的地方）恰巧演变成现今的极地和沙漠环境。
2、Evolution of Petroleum Exploration Concepts and Techniques石油勘探概念和技术的演变
From the days of Noah to OPEC, the role of the petroleum geologist has become more and more skilled and demanding.In the early days oil was found by wandering about the countryside with a naked flame, optimism, and a sense of adventure.One major U.S.company, which will remain nameless, once employed a chief geologist whose exploration philosophy was to drill on old Indian graves.Another oil finder used to put on an old hat, gallop about the prairie until his hat dropped off, and start drilling where it landed.History records that he was very successful(Cunningham-Craig, 1912).One of the earliest exploration tools was “creekology”.It gradually dawned on the early drillers that oil was more often found by wells located on river bottoms than by those on the hills.The anticlinal theory of oil entrapment, which explained this phenomenon, was expounded by Hunt(1861).Up to the present day the quest for anticlines has been one of the most successful exploration concepts.Experience soon proved, however, that oil could also occur off structure.Carll(1880)noted that the oil-bearing marine Venango sands of Pennsylvania occurred in trends that reflected not structure, but paleo-shorelines.Thus was borne the concept that oil could be trapped stratigraphically as well as structurally.Stratigraphic traps are caused by variations in deposition, erosion, or diagenesis within the reservoir.Through the latter part of the nineteenth century and the early part of the twentieth, oil exploration was based on the surface mapping of anticlines.Stratigraphic traps were found accidentally by serendipity or by subsurface mapping and extrapolation of data gathered from wells drilled-to test structural anomalies.Unconformities and disharmonic folding limited the depth to which surface mapping could be used to predict subsurface structure.The solution to this problem began to emerge in the mid-1920s, when seismic(refraction), gravity, and magnetic methods were all applied to petroleum exploration.Pure geological exploration methods advanced slowly but steadily during the first half of the twentieth century.One of the main applications to oil exploration was the development of micropaleontology.The classic biostratigraphic zones, which are based on macrofossils such as ammonites, could not be identified in the subsurface because.of the destructive effect of drilling.New zones had to be defined by microfossils, which were calibrated at the surface---with macrofossil zones.The study of modem sedimentary environments in the late 1950s and early 1960s, notably on Galveston Island(Texas), the Mississippi delta, the Bahama Bank, the Dutch Wadden Sea, and the Arabian Gulf gave new insights into ancient sedimentary facies and their interpretation.This insight provided improved prediction of the geometry and intemal porosity and permeability variation of reservoirs.The 1970s saw major advances on two fronts: geophysics and geochemistry.The advent of the computer resulted in a major quantum jump in seismic processing.Instead of seismologists poring painfully over a few bunched galvanometer traces, vast amounts of data could be displayed on continuous seismic sections.Reflecting horizons could be picked out in bright colors, first by geophysicists and later even by geologists.As techniques.improved, seismic lines became more and more like geological cross-sections, until stratigraphic and environmental concepts were directly applicable.In the 1980s increasing computing power led to the development of 3D seismic surveys that enabled seismic sections of the earth's crust to be displayed in any orientation, including horizontal.Thus it is now possible to image directly the geometry of many petroleum reservoirs.Similarly enhanced processing methods made it possible to detect directly the presence of oil and gas.These improvements went hand in hand with enhanced borehole logging.It is now possible to produce logs of the mineralogy, porosity, and pore fluids of boreholes, together with images of the geological strata that they penetrate.从圣经里的诺亚时代到OPEC（石油输出国组织）时代，石油地质学家这一职业需要越来越多的技能，要求越来越高。早期石油都是人们满怀热情、乐观和冒险精神，在乡村信步游荡时发现的。一个大型的美国公司（匿名）曾聘用了一位首席地质学家，他的勘探哲学是在印第安人古墓上进行钻探。另一个石油探寻者习惯于带上一顶旧帽子，然后在草原上骑马狂奔直至他的帽子掉落，并在他帽子落地的地方开始钻井。据历史记载，他是非常成功的（坎宁安一克雷格，1912）。“溪滨学”是最早的石油勘探工具之一，早期钻井工程师逐渐明白在河流底部钻井比山顶钻井更容易发现石油。由亨特创立的(1861)石油捕集的背斜理论可以解释这种现象。直至今日，背斜钻探一直是最成功的石油勘探概念之一。
然而，经验很快证实，石油也能出现在偏离构造的地方。卡尔(1880)指出，宾夕法尼亚含油的海相韦南戈砂岩分布带反映的不是构造，而是古海岸线。因此，石油能赋存于地层圈闭和构造圈闭的勘探概念诞生了。地层圈闭是由沉积、侵蚀或储层内部的成岩作用的变化形成的。19世纪末到20世纪初，石油勘探是以对背斜构造的地面绘图为依据。地层圈闭偶尔靠运气发现，或是通过地下绘图和对为检验构造异常体而进行钻井所得到的数据推断而来。不整齐和不规则的褶皱作用限制了地表绘图对地下构造推断的深度。20世纪20年代中期，当地震（反射）、重力和磁力方法都应用于石油勘探时，该问题才开始得以解决。
20世纪上半叶，纯粹的地质学勘探方法发展缓慢但稳步前行，石油勘探的主要应用之一是微体古生物学的发展。基于菊石等大化石的传统生物地层带不能够在地表下鉴定，因为钻井具有毁坏性作用。新的生物带不得不由微体化石来确定，微体化石带在地表由大化石带校准。20世纪50年代末60年代初的现代沉积环境研究，特别是在加维斯顿岛（德克萨斯州）、密西西比三角洲、巴哈马堤岸、荷兰瓦登海、阿拉伯湾的研究，为古沉积相及其解释提供了新的见解。这种新视野提高了预测储层几何形状、内部孔隙度和渗透率变化的能力。
20世纪70年代，见证了两个前沿领域——地球物理学和地球化学的主要发展。计算机的出现带来了地震处理技术的巨大飞跃。地震学家不再对几束检波器记录苦思冥想，大量数据可以显示在连续的地震剖面上。地球物理学家首先将反射层位挑出来用鲜明的颜色标示，后来甚至地质学家也能这么做。随着技术的进步，地震测线变得越来越像地质剖面，直至地层学概念和环境概念直接应用于此。
20世纪80年代，计算机计算能力的提高促进了三维地震勘探技术的发展，这就使得地震剖面能够从任意方位进行显示，包括水平显示。因此，现在可以对许多油藏的几何形态直接成像。同样增强了的处理方法使得直接探测油气的存在成为可能。这些技术进步与先进的测并技术齐头并进。现今，可以测到矿物、孔隙度、井眼孔隙流体的测井曲线，以及钻井所穿过地层的图像。
UNIT 3 Exploration Methods勘探方法
In the early 1900s drillers finally realized that petroleum occurred in the tiny pore spaces in subsurface reservoir rocks and was concentrated in traps within the reservoir rocks.According to the so-called anticlinal theory, oil accumulates in large, upward folds formed in reservoir rocks.Anticlines are often identified by the pattern ofrock layers cropping out onto the surface of the ground.In the early 1900s oil and gas were found by mapping and drilling anticlines and domes identified at the ground's surface.Geophysicists use three methods of oil exploration: magnetic, gravity, and seismic exploration.In magnetic exploration a magnetometer is used to determine the strength of the Earth's magnetic field at a specific point on the Earth's surface.In gravity exploration a gravity meter, or gravimeter, is used to determine the strength of the Earth's gravity at a location.The magnetometer and gravity meter are used to locate hidden, subsurface petroleum traps.In seismic exploration sound is transmitted into the ground by an explosive, such as dynamite, or by a thumper truck.As the sound passes into the subsurface, it is reflected off by subsurface rock layers and returns to the surface as echoes.The echoes are detected and recorded at the surface with microphones.The recordings are processed to form a picture of subsurface rock layers.Seismic exploration also works well in the ocean.Computers are used to enhance the subsurface picture formed from sound waves.十九世纪初，钻探家最终认识到石油存在于地下储集岩的微小孔隙中，并且聚集在储集岩的圈闭中。根据所谓的背斜理论，石油聚集在储集岩石中形成的大型上隆褶皱中。背斜构造通常可根据出露地面的岩层产状来识别。十九世纪初，油气就是通过对地表上识别的背斜和穹窿构造的绘图和钻探而发现的。
地球物理学家通过三种方法进行石油勘探：磁力、重力和地震勘探。在磁力勘探中，用磁力仪测定地球表面某一点的地球磁场强度。在重力勘探中，用重力测定仪或重力计测定某一点的地球重力场强度。磁力计和重力计用来确定地下隐藏的石油圈闭的位置。在地震勘探中，通过用爆炸物（如甘油炸药或重锤车）将声波传入地下。当声波向地下传播时，被地下的岩层反射回地面，称为反射波。反射波在地面可用检波器进行检测和记录，这些记录经过处理可以形成地下岩层的图像。地震勘探在海洋中也很有效。计算机可用来提高声波形成的地下图像的质量。
4、Relationship of Petroleum Geology to Petroleum Exploration and Production石油地质学和石油勘探、开发之间的关系
Geologists, in contrast to some nongeologists, believe that knowledge of the concepts of geology can help to find petroleum and, furthermore, often think that petroleum geology and petroleum exploration are synonymous, which they are not.Theories that petroleum is not formed by the transformation of organic matter in sediments have already been noted.If the petroleum geologists' view of oil generation and migration are not accepted, then present exploration methods would need extensive modification.Some petroleum explorationists still do not admit to a need for geologists to aid them in their search.In 1982 a successful oil finder from Texas, admitted to not using geologists because when his competitors hired them, all it did was increase their costs per barrel of oil found.The South African state oil company(SOEKOR)was under a statutory obligation imposed by its government to test every claim to an oil-finding method, be it dowsing or some sophisticated scientific technique.These examples are not isolated cases, and it has been argued that oil may better be found by random drilling than by the application of scientific pnnciples.Petroleum geology is only one aspect of petroleum exploration and production.Leaving aside atypical enterprises, petroleum exploration now involves integrated teams of people possessing a wide range of professional skills.These skills include political and social expertise, which is involved in the acquisition of prospective acreage.Geophysical surveying is involved in preparing the initial data on which leasing and, later, drilling recommendations are based.Geological concepts are applied to the interpretation of the geophysical data once they have been acquired and processed.As soon as an oil well has been drilled, the engineering aspects of the discovery need appraisal.Petroleum engineering is concerned with establishing the reserves of a field, the distribution of petroleum within the reservoir, and the most effective way of producing it.Thus petroleum geology lies within a continuum of disciplines, beginning with geophysics and ending with petroleum engineering, but overlapping both in time and subject matter.与非地质学家相比，地质学家相信地质学的概念知识能够帮助寻找石油，并且通常认为石油地质学和石油勘探是同义词，尽管它们不是同义的。关于石油不是由沉积物中的有机质转化而来的理论已经引起了人们的注意。如果石油地质学家关于石油生成和运移的观点没有被接受，那么现行的石油勘探方法将需要进行大幅度的调整。
一些石油勘探家仍不承认他们需要地质学家的帮助进行石油勘探。1982年，一位德克萨斯州成功的石油勘探者声称不需要地质学家，因为当他的竞争对手在雇用了地质学家之后，结果只是增加了每桶原油的发现成本。南非国家石油公司在国家政府法律的强行规定下，对每种发现石油的方法必须进行验证，以便确认它们是找矿方法还是复杂的科学技术。这些例子都不是孤立的情况，人们一直在争论，使用随机钻井可能比采用科学原理更好地找到石油。
石油地质学只是石油勘探和生产的一个方面。除去非典型的公司，现今的石油勘探需要掌握广泛专业技能的人员组成的综合团队。这些技能包括政治和社会知识，以便用于远景区块的并购。地球物理勘探为区块租赁以及后来的钻井建议提供原始数据。地质学概念应用于解释已采集的和处理的地球物理资料。一旦油井完钻，即需要对油气发现进行工程方面的评价。石油工程要考虑油田的储量，油藏中油气分布以及最有效的生产方式。因此，石油地质学位于一个连续的学科体系中，始于地球物理学、止于石油工程，但是在时间和主题上有交叉。
5、Geophysical Methods of Exploration地球物理勘探方法
Petroleum exploration and production are largely concerned with the geological interpretation of geophysical data, especially in offshore areas.Petroleum geologists need to be well acquainted with the methods of geophysics.For many years a large communication barrier existed in many oil companies between the two groups, which were usually organized in different departments.This separation has now largely disappeared, as a new breed of petroleum geoscientist appears--– half geologist and half geophysicist.Unfortunately, a new division has developed within the geophysical world between the mathematicians, physicists, and computer programmers(who acquire and process geophysical data)and those who use geological concepts to interpret this information.The following account of geophysical methods of petroleum exploration has two objectives.It seeks to explain the basic principles and to illustrate the wonders of modem geophysical display.What it does not pretend to do, however, is explain the arcane mathematics(神秘的数学)and statistical gymnastics(统计学的技巧)that are used to get from first principles to the finished brightly colored geophysical image(色彩鲜明的地球物理图像).This account is probably sufficient for petroleum reservoir engineers seeking to know the origins of the maps by which fields are found and reserves assessed.For petroleum geologists, however, it is only an introduction and will be followed by courses in geophysics in general and in seismic interpretation in particular.Three main geophysical methods are used in petroleum exploration: magnetic, gravity, and seismic.The first two of these methods are used only in the predrilling exploration phase.Seismic surveying is used in both exploration and development phases and is by far the most important of the three methods.石油勘探和生产很大程度上与地球物理资料的地质解释密切相关，特别是在海上区域。石油地质学家需要非常熟悉地球物理学方法。多年来，在很多石油公司，通常隶属不同部门的地质和地球物理两个小组之间存在很大的交流障碍。而今，随着石油地球科学家这一新的群体的出现，他们既是半个地质学家，又是半个地球物理学家，原有的两派分化现象在很大程度上已经消失。令人遗憾的是，在地球物理学领域，数学家、物理学家及计算机程序员（采集和处理地球物理资料）和那些应用地质学概念解释这些信息的人员之间又出现了新的分化。
以下所述的石油勘探的地球物理方法有两个目的。一是寻求解释基本现象，二是展示现代地球物理学的技术奇迹。但它并不解释从基本现象到最终色彩鲜明的地球物理图像中所运用的神秘的数学和统计学技巧。该描述可能足以帮助油藏工程师了解发现油田及进行储量评估所用的图件。但是，对于石油地质学家而言，这只是个基础，还要接着学习一般的地球物理学的课程，尤其是地震解释的课程。石油勘探中的三种主要的地球物理学方法是磁力勘探、重力勘探和地震勘探。前两种方法仅用于钻井之前的勘探阶段。地震勘探用于勘探和开发两个阶段，是目前这三种方法中最重要的方法。
6、Shale Gas页岩气
Shale gas production, which had continued steadily since 1821, underwent renaissance during the energy crisis of the late 1970s and early 1980s and continues to increase.U.S.shale gas production has accelerated from 195 Bcf(billion cubic feet)in 1992 to 300 Bcf in 1995.Extensive research has been undertaken in the exploration for and production of shale gas.It is now known that the regional distribution of shale gas is controlled by the quantity, quality, and level of the maturation of organic matter in the shale formations.Local concentrations of shale gas occur either in siltstone strata or in fracture systems.Siltstone beds commonly occur in the syndepositionallows that are carefully avoided in conventional petroleum exploration.Fracture systems may be best developed where strata are stretched over the crest of anticlines, but they also occur along regional fault and basin hinge-line trends.These can be located by remote sensing and by seismic surveys.Conventional seismic surveys are inappropriate to locate low velocity gas-charged shale zones.Specific methods of shooting and processing seismic data have now been developed.Conventional drilling with a mud-filled hole will seldom locate shale gas.The weight of the mud forces the gas away from the well bore.Such gas as may escape into the drilling mud is recorded as “background gas”, with little thought that it may be commercial.Shale gas is found by air drilling.Production is only established after specialized well stimulation techniques have been applied.自1821年起稳步增长的页岩气生产，在20世纪70年代末和80年代初的能源危机时期经历了一次复兴，并继续增长。美国页岩气生产由1992年的195Bcf(十亿立方英尺)，增加到1995年的300Bcf。
在页岩气勘探和生产领域已经开展了广泛的研究。现在已知页岩气的区域分布是由页岩层中有机质的数量、质量和成熟度水平来控制的。页岩气在粉砂岩地层或裂缝系统中局部聚集。粉砂岩地层通常出现在同沉积期的低洼地带，而常规油气勘探会特意避开这些地方。
裂缝系统最有可能发育在背斜脊部地层拉张的地方，但是沿着区域断层和盆地枢纽线走向也有可能发育。可以通过遥感和地震勘探来确定这些裂缝的位置。常规的地震勘探不适用于确定低速含气页岩区域。特定的激发和地震资料的处理方法现在已经发展起来了。
因为泥浆的重量会迫使页岩气远离井筒，所以传统的泥浆钻井方法很难找到页岩气。这些页岩气可能逃逸到钻井泥浆里而被记录为“背景气体”，没有人想到这些气体会有商业价值。页岩气是由空气钻井发现的。只有应用了特殊的油井增产技术，才能进行页岩气生产。
7、Petroleum System含油气系统 A petroleum system is defined as a natural system that encompasses a pod of active source rock and all related oil and gas and which includes all the geologic elements and processes that are essential if a hydrocarbon accumulation is to exist.This once-active source rock may now be inactive or depleted.Petroleum here includes high concentrations of(1)thermal or biogenic gas found in conventional reservoirs or in gas hydrate, tight reservoirs, fractured shale, and coal;or(2)condensates, crude oils, and asphalts found in nature.The term system describes the interdependent elements and processes that form the functional unit that creates hydrocarbon accumulations.The essential elements include a petroleum source rock, reservoir rock, seal rock, and overburden rock, and the processes are trap fonnation and the generation-migration-accumulation of petroleum.The functions of the first three essential elements are obvious, however, the function of the overburden rock is subtler because, in addition to providing the overburden necessary to thermally mature the source rock, it can also have considerable impact on the geometry of the underlying migration path and trap.These essential elements and processes must occur in time and space so that organic matter included in a source rock can be converted to a petroleum accumulation.A petroleum system exists wherever the essential elements and processes occur.含油气系统可以定义为一个天然系统，该系统包括一套有效烃源岩和与之相关的所有石油和天然气，以及油气藏存在所必需的所有地质要素和地质作用。这一套曾经有效的烃源岩目前可能已不再有效或已排烃殆尽。这里的“油气”包括高浓度的：(1)在常规储集层、天然气水合物、致密储集层、裂缝性页岩和煤层中发现的热成因或生物成因气；(2)在自然界发现的凝析油、原油和沥青。“系统”一词指油气成藏的功能单元形成所需的相互依存的地质要素和地质作用。
“基本要素”包括烃源岩、储集层、盖层和上覆岩系。“地质作用”包括圈闭的形成和油气的生成一运移一聚集。前三种基本要素的作用是显而易见的，但上覆岩系的作用比较难以捉摸，它不仅提供烃源岩热成熟必须的上覆条件，而且还对其下伏的运移通道和圈闭的几何形态产生很大的影响。这些基本要素和地质作用必须发生在一定的时间和空间，从而使烃源岩中的有机质转化为油气藏。含油气系统存在于具备这些基本要素和地质作用发生的地方。
8、Offshore Development海上开发
Onshore development wells are drilled on various types of geometric arrangement at spacings determined by the permeability of the reservoir and of drainage anticipated for each well.Offshore, however, this procedure is not feasible.Various types of production facilities are now used.These include floating buoys, ships, floating production platforms, and fixed production platforms.Fixed platforms have been used for water depths of up to some 450 m;below that floating production facilities are used.Petroleum production has already been achieved from 890m of water, and production systems are planned for water depths of 1650m in the Mensa field of the Gulf of Mexico.Offshore petroleum production requires the ability to drill a multitude of wells that radiate out from a single platform.In the old days wells could be deviated from vertical by dropping a steel wedge or “whipstock” down the borehole.Nowadays with motorized drill bits and sophisticated navigation systems it is possible to steer a well in any orientation that is required.Though this technology was largely developed to facilitate drilling many wells off a single offshore platform, it has now been reintroduced onshore and applied to drilling horizontal wells.Such wells can be drilled to penetrate individual channel reservoir sands or to cross-cut fault systems that may serve as natural conduits for petroleum production.Horizontal drilling has been widely applied, for example, to the Austin Chalk of Texas, where petroleum is produced from fault-related fracture systems in a rock that has porosity, but normally lacks permeability.陆上开发井是按照各种不同类型的几何布局进行钻井的，井间距离取决于油藏的渗透率和每口井预期的泄油半径。然而，这个过程在海上不可行。目前海上使用不同类型的生产设备，包括浮标、轮船、浮式采油平台和固定式采油平台。固定式生产平台用于水深约450米以内的区域，更深水域使用浮式生产设备。目前在水深达890米的地方已经实现了原油生产，在墨西哥湾的Mensa油田，已经计划实施水深1650米的生产系统。
海上石油生产需要具备在一个平台向四周钻多口井的能力。以前可以通过向井眼里放入一个钢楔或者“造斜器”的方法来造斜。现在使用电动钻头和先进的导航系统”可以按照要求控制钻井的任意走向。尽管这种技术在很大程度上是为了达到在一个海上平台上钻探多口井的目的，现在它却被重新引入陆上应用于水平钻井。水平井钻井可以穿透单个河道储集砂体，或可以穿越与断层相关的层面使之成为石油生产的天然渠道。水平井钻井已经得到广泛应用，如德克萨斯州的奥斯丁白垩层，这种岩石多孔隙但渗透率较低，水平钻井使得石油从与断层相关的裂缝系统中生产出来
9、Pressure of the Reservoir油藏的压力
For oil to move through the pores of the reservoir rock and out into the bottom of a well, the pressure under which the oil exists in the reservoir must be greater than the pressure at the bottom of the well.As long as this difference in pressure can be maintained, the oil with its associated dissolved gas will continue to flow into the well bore.Some free gas or water may flow into the well with the oil and these additional fluids tend to reduce the amount of oil produced by well.The rate at which the oil will move through the rock towards the well will depend on the reservoir pressure, the pressure at the bottom of the well, the permeability of the rock and the viscosity of the oil.The greater part of the flow will take place through the zones of highest permeability as these offer the path ofleast resistance into the well.This is most marked in a fractured reservoir where the fractures will carry almost the entire flow into the well, while the oil in the matrix continues to replenish the fractures.As oil is removed from the rock, the pressure of the reservoir will decrease, and consequently the rate of production will tend to decline unless the pressure is sustained by a natural water drive.The rate at which the pressure decreases will affect the total amount of oil which can be moved from the reservoir in a given period of time.油藏中原油的压力必须大于井底压力，原油才能流经储层岩石中的孔隙进入井底。只要维持这种压力差，原油及其伴生的溶解气就会源源不断地流入井筒。一部分游离气或水可能会随石油一起流入井筒。这些伴生流体的产出常常会减少井的产油量。石油通过岩石流向井筒的速度取决于油藏压力、井底压力、岩石的渗透率和原油的粘度。大部分石油将通过渗透率最高的层段流动，因为这些层段提供了流入井筒阻力最小的通道。这种情况在裂缝性储层中最为显著。几乎所有流体都通过裂缝流入井筒。同时，储层孔隙中的原油持续不断地补充到这些裂缝中。
随着石油的开采，油藏的压力就会降低，如果没有天然水驱来维持压力，石油的产量就会降低。压力下降的速度会影响一定时间内从油藏中采出的原油总量。
10、Oil Extraction采油
In most cases-the reservoir has sufficient pressure for oil or gas to flow to the surface.In this situation casing is generally run below the producing zone, and perforations are shot through it by explosive charges opposite the hydrocarbon pay interval.Steel tubing is hung from the well head to the producing zone, and the annulus between tubing and casing sealed off with a packer.The productivity of many wells may be stimulated, either initially or worked over later during their life.Typical stimulation techniques involve fracturing the formation, generally by high-pressure pumping of metallic or plastic shrapnel into fractures to wedge them open.For a finale, hydrochloric or some other acid may then be injected to enlarge the fractures and hence increase permeability and productivity.These techniques are largely, but not exclusively, applied to carbonate reservoirs.At the well head a system ofvalves, termed the Christmas tree, is installed from which a flowline leads to a tank in which produced oil and gas are separated at atmospheric pressure.If the reservoir pressure is too low for oil to flow to the surface, a pumping device is used: either a nodding donkey at the well head, or a downhole pump installation.A diesel or electrically powered beam engine raises and lowers a connected string of sucker rods, which are connected to a piston at the base of the borehole.Altematively, an electrically driven centrifugal pump may be installed at the bottom of the hole.在大多数情况下，油藏有足够的压力，可以使石油和天然气流出地面。在这种情况下，套管通常安装到生产层之下，在生产层对应的位置用射孔弹将套管射穿。油管悬挂在井口和生产层之间，油管和套管之间的环形空间被封隔器所密封。许多油井都采取了增产措施，可以在生产刚开始的时候，也可以在稍后的时候。典型的增产措施包括地层造缝，通常通过高压喷出金属性或塑性的物体使之炸开。最后，将盐酸或者其它酸液注入，以便扩大裂缝，从而提高渗透率和生产能力。这些技术主要应用于碳酸盐岩油藏，但并不局限于这类油藏。
在井口装有一整套阀门，它被称作采油树，连着它的一根出油管将油导入一个油罐，采出来的石油和天然气在那里进行常压下分离。
如果油藏的压力太低，不能使石油流出地面，就需要安装一个抽吸装置：井口的抽油机或者井下泵。柴油或者电力驱动的游梁举起和放下抽油杆，抽油杆另一端与井筒内的活塞相连。或者也可以在井底放一个电动的离心泵。
11、Artificial Lift and Enhanced Recovery人工举升和提高采收率
Not all fields produce by natural drive mechanisms, and even these natural drive mechanisms do not recover all the oil.Artificial methods are used to produce oil from fields lacking natural drive, and enhanced recovery methods increase the recoverable reserves.A well will flow oil to the surface if the static pressure at the bottom of the well exceeds the pressure of the column of mud and the frictional effect of the borehole.In many shallow fields with low reservoir pressure and in depleted fields, the wells do not flow spontaneously.In such instances the oil is pumped to the surface using the nodding donkey or bottom hole pumps.Once a field becomes depleted, it may be abandoned or subjected to a secondary recovery program to step up production.In due course even a tertiary recovery program may be initiated.Today the practice is to initiate an enhanced recovery program when a field first goes on stream.There are many enhanced recovery techniques.Some of the methods are briefly discussed as follows.One of the main objectives of enhanced recovery is to maintain or reestablish the original reservoir pressure.This objective can be accomplished in one of several ways.Gas may be injected, either petroleum gas from the same or adjacent field or naturally occurring or industrially manufactured inert gases, such as carbon dioxide or nitrogen.Alternatively, liquids may be injected;these liquids may be seawater or connate waters from adjacent strata.Careful chemical analysis and treatment of injected waters is essential to prevent and monitor unwanted chemical changes taking place within the reservoir.Some waters damage permeability by precipitating salts in pore spaces and causing clays to swell.Seawater must be treated to destroy bacteria, since they degrade oil and increase its viscosity.More elaborate enhanced recovery methods involve the injection of detergents(micellar floods)to emulsify heavy oil and move it to the surface.Electric radiators have been used to mobilize oil from shales and from conventional petroleum reservoirs.并不是所有的油田都能依靠天然驱动机理进行生产，而且即便采用了天然驱动机理，也不能采出所有的石油。人工举升方法用于天然驱动不足的油田中采油。提高采收率的方法可以增加可采储量。
如果井底的静态压力大于泥浆柱压力和井眼的摩阻，油井内的原油就会流到地面。但在许多油藏压力低的浅层油田和枯竭油田，油井不能自动流出原油。在这种情况下，原油是用抽油机或者井底抽油泵抽到地面的。
一旦油田枯竭了，要么报废该油田，要么进行二次采油来提高产量。在适当的时候，甚至还要实施三次采油。现在的做法是，在油田刚开始投入生产时就采用提高采收率措施。提高采收率技术有很多，以下简要讨论其中一些方法。
提高采收率的主要目标之一是保持或者重新恢复原始油藏压力。这个目标可以通过好几种方式来实现。可以注入气体，要么注入来自相同或相邻油田的石油天然气，要么注入天然或工业生产的惰性气体，例如二氧化碳或氮气。另一种方式是注入液体，这些液体可以是海水或相邻地层中的原生水。对注入水进行仔细的化学分析和处理对于预防和监控油藏内发生不必要的化学反应是非常重要的。一些水因为会在孔隙空间内沉淀盐以及造成粘土矿物的膨胀而破坏渗透率。因为细菌会降解原油而增加其粘度，海水必须经过处理杀死细菌。更复杂的提高采收率的方法包括注入乳化剂（胶束驱油）使重油乳化，然后采出。电热辐射已经被用来驱动页岩和常规油层中的原油。
12、Reservoir Simulation of Incised Valley Fill深切谷充填的油藏模拟
The principal aim of reservoir simulation at outcrop is to quantify the impact that lithological heterogeneity on a scale of one to hundreds of meters has on the production ofhydrocarbons from incised valley fill reservoirs.Excellent exposure of an incised valley fill unit in the Kaiparowits Plateau region of southem Utah has enabled high-resolution interpretations of the lithofacies distributions to be adapted as two-dimensional flow simulations.The outcrop section through incised valley fill strata is oriented approximately perpendicular to paleoflow and is above the A sandstone sequence boundary within the Cretaceous Straight Cliffs Formation.The lithofacies, identified as shale, heterolithics, and sand bodies with bounding surfaces, give rise to heterogeneity, predominantly in the vertical direction.The direction of least variability is horizontal and parallel to the paleocurrent.Petrophysical properties of the lithofacies have been varied by altering the flow properties, thus generating different scenarios and realizations for comparison.This allows the impact of each rock type on the fluid-flow simulation to be quantified.Our simulation results indicate that for linear drive, where horizontal flow is induced by an injector-producer pair, the distributions of zero-and low-permeability shale and heterolithic bodies only affect flow significantly if sand body properties vary significantly.For vertical flow, however, these lithological units strongly affect the flow because of their effects on flow-path tortuousity.The simulations show that horizontal well placement, parallel to the paleocurrent(i.e., in the direction of least variability), offers the best sweep efficiency, although the well location must be optimized.根据露头区进行油藏模拟研究的主要目的是量化1米至数百米尺度的岩性非均质性对深切谷充填油藏油气产量的影响。犹他州南部Kaiparowits高原地区的深切谷充填单元出露完好，这使高分辨率的岩相分布解释成果能应用于二维流体流动模拟。穿过深切谷充填地层的露头剖面大致与古水流方向垂直，并位于白垩纪直崖组地层内的A砂岩层序边界之上。其岩相为泥岩、异粒岩和带边界面的砂体，主要在垂直方向产生非均质性。变化最小的方向是与古水流平行的水平方向。
通过改变流体特性可以改变岩相的岩石物理特征，因此生成不同的模拟情景来进行对比。这样，可以将每种岩性对流体流动模拟的影响进行量化。我们的模拟结果表明，对于线性驱动，其水平流动是由注入井——采油井的井组引起的，零渗透率和低渗透率的泥岩以及异粒岩体的分布仅仅在砂体特性变化明显的情况下对流体流动产生显著影响。但是，对于垂直流动，由于这些岩性单元对流动路径弯曲度的影响，其对流体流动的影响很大。模拟表明，尽管井的位置必须进行优化，但与古水流平行（即岩相变化最小的方向）进行水平井的布署能够获得最佳的驱油效率。
13、Outline of Natural Gas Gathering and Transmission天然气集输概述
Gathering and transrmssion of natural gas is an important production course at well sites.Gathering of gases is referred to be the course from well heads to the gathering station through the pipelines.By the rough treatment, natural gas can be transmitted to the inlet of purification station, this course is called the transmission or transportation(not including the transmission of pure commercial gases after purification).Pipelines used to transmit natural gas from well head to gathering station and purification station are called gathering pipe network, which connected to all the gas wells to provide the passages for gathering and pre-treatment of natural gases.All the pipelines are closed to keep the gases flowing continuously.The pattem of pipeline basically includes three types: radial, branch and loop-shape pattems, they are combined sometimes.If there were two or more gas reservoirs need to be developed at the same time, several sets ofpipe networks would be put according to the quality and pressure of natural gases.The pressure kept inside the pipelines can be determined by formation pressure, technology of gas-liquid separation and pressure requirement of transmission system.In some gas fields that contain H2S, the pipe networks need to be constructed with low carbon steel pipe or sulfide resistant low-alloy steel pipes, to prevent the stress corrosion caused by sulfide.Stations for gathering and pre-treatment of natural gas are the specific sites, including gathering station(single well station included), dehydration station, pressure-adjusting and metering station, distribution station, booster station, storage station, valves room, pipe cleaner station and cathode protection station, etc.The patterns, numbers, spots of stations and equipment are determined by the quality of natural gas, gas well locations and pre-treatment techniques.在井场进行天然气集输是非常重要的生产过程。集气是指天然气从井口通过管网到达集气站的过程。预处理后将天然气输送到净化站入口，这个过程称为天然气的传输或运输（不包括净化处理后纯净商业天然气的输送）。
用于把天然气从井口传输到集气站和净化站的管道称为集气管网，它连接所有产气井，为天然气集气和预处理提供通道。所有的管网都是密闭的，以使天然气保持持续流动。管网布局的基本样式包括放射状、枝状和环状三种，有时也组合使用。如果有两个或更多气藏需要同时开采，应根据天然气的品质和压力设置几套管网。管网内的压力可由地层压力、气液分离工艺和输气系统的压力要求来确定。在有些含硫化氢气田，管网系统要用低碳钢管或抗硫低合金钢管来建造，以防止硫化物造成应力腐蚀。
天然气采集和预处理厂站包括集气站（含单井站）、脱水站、调压计量站、分输站、增压站、储配站、阀室、清管站和阴极保护站等。厂站的样式、数量、布点、设备配置由天然气的品质、气井位置和预处理工艺来确定。
14、H2S and Hydrocarbon Monitors H2S和油气监测 Safety equipment in the gas purification plant consists of pressure relief devices, continuous H2S monitors, personal H2S monitors, continuous hydrocarbon monitors, fire hydrants, fire monitors, fire extinguishers, self contained breathing apparatus, utility stations and safety showers.Continuous H2S monitors are installed in throughout the plant.The exact location of these monitors will be determined during detailed engineering.The monitors need to be located near potential leak sources of H2S where the concentrations of H2S could be at toxic levels.This includes nearly all equipment and piping within the sulfur recovery complex.Monitors are to be located approximately 0.4 meters above ground or platforms since H2S is heavier than air.The monitors should be wired back to the DCS and to horns and beacons in the units.Beacons are typically located near normal access points to the unit.H2S monitors are required at all elevations where personnel may routinely be required for normal operation monitoring.In addition to the permanent area H2S monitors, personnel working in the plant should carry H2S monitors at all times during normal plant operation.These portable monitors are necessary because the area H2S monitors can not safely monitor all areas ofthe plantat all elevations.Continuous hydrocarbon monitors are also installed.The monitors need to be located near potential leak sources of hydrocarbons.Fire hydrants, monitors and extinguishers should be strategically located throughout the plant.The location of this equipment should be based on fire fighting plans and practices.Self contained breathing apparatus(SCBA)should be strategically located throughout the plant.The exact location of the SCBAs will be determined during detailed engineering.The SCBAs are used when responding to toxic gas leaks.SCBAs are typically located at the main entrances to the units.This location is required so that operators can put the SCBAs on before entering the units to rescue downed personnel or isolate leaking equipment or pipe Utility stations should be located throughout the plant.Utility stations include connections for low pressure steam, nitrogen, plant air and service water.The steam connections can be used for steam lances.天然气净化厂的安全设备包括泄压装置、H2S连续监测仪、个人H2S监测仪、油气连续监测仪、消防栓、防火探测器、灭火器、自给式呼吸器、公用工程站及安全淋浴器。
整个天然气净化厂到处都安装有H2S连续监测仪。这些监测仪的确切安装位置在具体工程施工中确定。这些监测仪需安装在H2S浓度可能达到有毒级别的H2S泄漏源附近。几乎包括硫回收装置的所有设备和管线。因为H2S比空气重，所以监测仪安装在大约高于平台或地面0.4m的位置。应将监测器用电线连回到设备中的数字控制系统、报警器和信号灯上。信号灯通常安装在通往设备的常经之路上。H2S监测仪要求安装在员工通常进行正常操作检查作业时要到达的所有高度的地方。
除了这些H2S固定的监测仪外，在厂区工作的职工在正常生产期间必须一直携带个人H2S监测仪。这些便携式监测仪是必要的，因为固定H2S监测仪不能监测工厂内所有高度上的各个区域。
油气连续监测仪也要安装。检测仪须安装在可能的油气泄漏源附近。
整个工厂内应有策略地放置消防栓、监控器和灭火器。这些设备的位置应根据消防计划和演习的情况而定。
整个工厂内还应有策略地放置自给式空气呼吸器(SCBA)。这些呼吸器的确切安装位置将在详细工程施工中确定。呼吸器在毒气泄漏时可以用到。自给式空气呼吸器通常放置在装置的主要入口处。要求将呼吸器放在这里，以便操作人员在进入装置区营救晕倒的员工或者隔离泄漏设备和管线前就可以佩戴上呼吸器。
整个工厂都应有公用工程站，包括连接低压蒸汽、氮气、厂用空气和工厂用水的管线。蒸汽管线可以用于蒸汽吹扫。
15、Intelligent Well智能井 The term intelligent well generally refers to the migration down hole of fundamental process control.Today's intelligent well systems are real-time production and injection management networks that provide in well monitoring, data assessment and action in the form of remote flow control.Intelligent well systems acquire date parameters from advanced in well sensors and allow the operator to change flow characteristics without need for well intervention.The closer measurements are made to the zone of interest, the greater their resolution and ultimate value.Thus, in-well permanent sensors also contribute to a better understanding of specific production and/or injection zones, and near-and inter-well reservoir characteristics.Most intelligent systems well are paying out in less than six months.This quick payback adds value beyond the cost of intervention, as production and reservoir personnel now apply the system to manage the asset.Intelligent well systems now deliver real-time buildup and draw down profiles on demand.Injection programs can be evaluated quickly to determine whether they deliver modeled rates.In many cases, reservoir structures, specifically sealing faults, have been confirmed by intelligent well systems data parameters.The ability to isolate specific zones within an asset, pressure up the well and establish whether there is any communication to surrounding zones has tremendous benefit.智能井通常指将基本的过程控制移到井下进行。当今的智能井系统是一个实时注采管理网络，能提供井内监测、数据评价及流量遥控作业的功能。智能井系统通过先进的井内传感器获得数据，操作者无需进行井的作业便能改变流动特性。测量点离目标层越近，其分辨率越高，最终价值越大。这样，井内的永久性传感器还有助于更好地了解特定产层和／或注水层以及邻井和井间油藏的特征。
大多数智能井系统的成本不到6个月就可以收回。快速的成本回收所增加的价值超过了进行井的作业所需的成本，所以现在生产和油藏管理人员使用智能井系统进行资产管理。如今智能井系统可以根据需要提供实时压力恢复和压降曲线，快速完成注入方案评价，从而确定它们是否与模拟的速率一致。在许多情况下，智能井系统获取的数据参数可以确定油藏构造，尤其是封堵性断层。智能井系统具备分隔开特定的产层、提高油井压力和确定是否与周围产层连通等方面的功能，对油气生产大有益处。Target constraints of air drilling空气钻井目的层的限制
The types of lithologies that can be drilled with air are limited, with older, consolidated rocks the most applicable to air drilling.Some of these hard rock formations do not need the pressure forces of fluid to support the borehole wall.Less consolidated formations are not well-suited to air drilling because they may have a tendency to slough.The amount of water that can be accommodated in an air-drilled hole is limited because too little can lead to sticking and too much can negate the benefits of air drilling.With the lack of a cost-effective steerable system, thin reservoirs cannot be drilled efficiently with air.A target thickness of 50 ft is a minimum when using rotary assemblies because the build and drop tendencies of rotary-hold assemblies are
。difficult to maintain below 0.25/100 ft.In thin targets, too many motor-correction runs would be required to make air drilling beneficial.Air drilling horizontal wells can be a beneficial altemative for certain applications.The operator must be aware of the limitations and advantages of air drilling to optimize its drilling operations.Many standard practices used in air-drilling vertical holes have to be modified continuously as the hole angle increases to horizontal.As with any horizontal drilling operation, careful planning is one of the keys to a successful well.能采用空气钻井的岩性类型是有限的，最适合用空气钻井的是较老的固结的岩石。这些硬的岩层有些不需要液体压力来支撑井壁。而固结较差的地层不太适合用空气钻井，其原因是这些地层可能有坍塌的倾向性。空气钻井的用水量一定要适当，用水量太少会导致卡钻，过多又会降低空气钻井的优势。
由于缺乏性价比高的导向系统，薄油层不能有效地采用空气钻井。当使用旋转钻具组合时目的层的最小厚度为50英尺，原因是旋转钻具组合能增加和减少的倾向很难维持在0.25度/100英尺以下。对于薄的目的层，为了使空气钻井更有效，会要求很多次马达方向的修正。
在某些情况下，用空气钻水平井是有效的。为了优化钻井作业，作业人员必须要了解空气钻井的优点和局限性。随着井斜角度变大直到水平，空气钻直井时许多标准化的作业方法不得不连续地进行改进。和任何水平井钻井作业一样，精细的计划是钻一口成功井的关键要素之一。
17、Precipitation of Salt井下盐的析出
The precipitation of salt downhole results in substantial well productivity decline, and may culminate in total flow blockage.Relatively low produced water rates per day can still result in rapid salt deposit buildup and dramatic oil or gas
。production reduction.For example, a well with a down hole temperature of 212F, a wellhead temperature of 90。F, and producing sodium chloride brine at or near salt satufation, will precipitate about 10 lb of salt per.barrel water produced.Although halite deposits are generally easier to remove than other scales---most commonly by periodic washing with fresh or low-salinity water---rapid buildup rate requires frequent wellintervention to maintain well productivity.Deposition of sodium chloride in well systems is a significant problem in different areas of the world that can result in significant production deferment and necessitate costly well intervention.Salt scaling is particularly severe in wells producing highly saline formation brines, or brines near saturation with respect to sodium chloride.In such cases, the potential for generation large quantities of halite scale exists as produced fluids rise in the well bore and cool-precipitating salt from solution and forming salt bridges in the flow system.Like any scale deposit, these halite deposits can bridge in the tubing and restrict production capacity of the well or surface flow line.井下盐的析出会导致油井的产能显著下降，甚至会造成流动通道完全被堵塞。油井每天相对较低的产水量仍可造成盐沉积物的快速形成，明显地降低原油或天然气产量。例如，某口油井的井下温度为212。F，井口温度为90。F，产出的氯化钠盐水处于或接近于盐饱和，那么每桶产出水中会析出大约10磅盐。虽然岩盐沉积物较之其它结垢物更容易清除，但由于盐沉积物的形成较快，需要频繁地进行洗井作业以保持油井的产能。最常用的方法是用淡水或低矿化度水进行定期的清洗。
在世界各地，油井系统中氯化钠的沉淀都是一个严重的问题，因为它不仅会导致重大的生
第二篇：高级财务英语
英译汉
1.Owner’s equity 所有者权益2.Charge of accounts账目管理3.bankreconciliation银行对帐单4.Marketable security 有价证券5.Intangible assets无形资产6.impairment test7.accumulate depreciation 累计折旧8.interest payable 应付利息9.common stock 普通股10.capital supplies 资本来源11.accounting elements会计要素12.debets balance 借方余额13.posting 过账14.net realizable value净变现价值15.securities exchange 证券交易所16.amortization分期偿还17.premium bonds溢价债券18.current liabilities流动负债19.partnership合资企业20.cash dividends现金股利
汉译英
1.公认会计准则generally accepted accounting principle（GAAP）2．总账generalledger3.应收账款receivable account4．坏账准备Bad Debit Reserve5.存货inventory6.固定资产fixed assets7.预收账款Accounts Received in Advance8.债券折价发行bond discount9.独资企业individual proprietorship10股票、股利 stock dividend11.经济业务business transaction 12.丁字账户skeleton account13.调整及结账分录closing entry14．债券bond15.折旧率rate of depreciation16.使用寿命service life17.特许权franchise18.债券面值Face value19.优先股 preferred stock20.实收资本paid-in capital 1．The difference between the bonds and debentures Answer:A bond is secured by physical assets in a trust in a trust deed written into the bond contract.If the bond goes into default,the trust deed provisions allow the bondholders to seize specified physical asserts and sell them to recover their investment.A debenture may be secured by something other than a physical asset that can be seized and sold in the event of default on the issue.The asset secured may be a general claim on residual assets or the issuer’s credit rating.2.What are the accounting element? Answer:Assets(what an organization owns)LiabilitiesOwner’s equityRevenueExpenseProfit(gains/losses)3.What is good will? Answer: is the difference between the actual purchase price of an acquired firm and the estimated fair market value of the identifiable net assets acquired.(Assets-Liabilities,valued at fair value)4.corporations’ advantages and disadvantages.Answer: Advantages Corporationsare separate legal entitiesHave continuity life Shareholders are not liable for the corporationOwnership rights can be esily transferred Disadvantages(1)the income of a corporation is taxed twice(2)Corporations are generally subject to more regulations than other businesses
第三篇：高级英语丘吉尔
Exercises for Unit 5
Class __________ No._________ Name ________________
Ⅰ.Multiple-choice 1.He said that everyone should turn their backs _____ a craving for fame and prestige.A.for B.down C.up D.on 2.Hitler was however wrong and we should ______ to help Russia.A.make all out B.make out all C.go all out D.go out all 3.In June 1941 Hitler suddenly ______ an attack on Russia.A.launched B.exerted C.developed D.created 4.I see the Russian soldiers standing on the ________ of their native land, guarding the fields.A.threshold B.frontiers C.entrance D.gate 5.The subjugation of the western Hemisphere______ his will… A.to B.in C.according to D.against 6.When I awoke on the morning of Sunday, the news was brought ______ me ______Hitler’s invasion of Russia.A.for…of B.to…on C.to… of D.for… on 7.Hitler was wrong and we should ______ to help Russia.A.go out all B.go all out C.make out all D.make all out 8.Winant said the same would be true ______the U.S.A.A.with B.of C.for D.to 9.The Nazi regime is devoid ______ all theme and principle except appetite and racial domination.A.of B.away C.from D.for 10.We shall ______ all our friends and allies in every part of the world to take the same course and pursue it.A.appeal to B.appeal for C.appeal with D.appeal of 11.This is no time to moralize ______ the follies of countries which have allowed themselves to be struck down one by one.A.to
B.on C.by D.in 12.In June 1941 Hitler suddenly launched an attack ______ Russia.A.for
B.to C.on D.against
II.Proof-reading 1.I suppose they will be rounded out in hordes.2.We shall fight him by land, we shall fight him by sea, we shall fight him on the air.3.The Iraqis are counting in enlisting the support of the world.4.On the contrary, we shall be fortified and encouraged in our efforts to rescue mankind of his tyranny.5.If you do not commit the crime, you don’t have to go all out to concealing the evidence.III.Please identify the figures of speech used in the following sentences.1.After the failure of his last novel his reputation stands on slippery grounds.______ 2.I see also the Hun soldiery plodding on like a swarm of crawling locusts.______ 3.Let us learn the lesson already taught by such cruel experience.__________ 4.But can you doubt what our policy will be? _____________ 5.We shall fight him by land, we shall fight him by sea, we shall fight him in the air, until,...______________ 6.We have but one aim and one single, irrevocable purpose.__________ 7.…with its clanking, heel-clicking, dandified Prussian officers…__________
IV.Fill in each of the blanks with one of the following words or expressions in its proper form.Each word or expression is to be used only once.be true of, count on, devoid of, fresh from, in due course，issue，round up, thereby, to that effect
1.The great___________________ today is whether there will be war or peace.2.The sheepdog____________________ the sheep and drove them through the gate.3.Our team is ________________________ you to win the match, Joe.4.As _____________________ “due to”, “prior to” can never begin a sentence.5.He finished first in the race, _________ winning the championship for his school.6.She called him a villain or words_________________________.7.Sound waves can not travel through a space_____________________ air.8.These are eggs______________________ the hen, not preserved ones.9.I will answer all your questions______________________.V.Translation 1.Chinese to English Translation.1)他真是个好人，经常在我妈妈面前说我的好话。(reference)
2)过去的一切——我们曾经的承诺，曾有过的快乐，都烟消云散了。(flash)
3)我记不得他是怎么说的，但我肯定他讲话的大意是那样的。(effect)
第四篇：高级英语演讲稿
1.NEW YORK SENATE RACE SPEECH
HILARY CLINTON
Youknow, you know, we started this great effort on a sunny July morning in Pinders Corner on Pat and Liz Moynihan's beautiful farm and 62 counties, 16 months, 3 debates, 2 opponents, and 6 black pantsuits later, because of you, here we are.You came out and said that issues and ideals matter, jobs matter, downstate and upstate, health care matters, education matters, the
environment matters, social security matters, a woman's right to choose
matters.It all matters and I just want to say from the bottom of my heart, thank you, New York!
Thank you for opening up your minds and your hearts, for seeing the
possibility of what we could do together for our children and for our future here in this state and in our nation.I am profoundly grateful to all of you for giving me the chance to serve you.I willabout overcrowded or crumbling schools, about the struggle to care for growing children and aging parents, about the continuing challenge of providing equal opportunity for all and about children moving away from their home towns because good jobs are so hard to find in upstate New York.Now I've worked on issues like these for a long time, some of them for 30 years, and I am determined to make a difference for all of you.You see, I believe our nation owes every responsible citizen and every responsible family the tools that they need to make the most of their own lives.That's the basic bargain.I'll do my best to honor in the United States Senate.And to those of you who did not support me, I want you to know that I will work in the Senate for you and for all New Yorkers.And to those of you who worked so hard and never lost faith even in the toughest times, I offer you my undying gratitude.2.Gettysburg Address
AbrahamLincoln
Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure.We are met on a great battle-field of that war.We have come to dedicate a portion of that field as a final resting-place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live.It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this.But, in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate – we cannot consecrate – we cannot hallow – this ground.The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it far above our poor power to add or detract.The world will little note nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here.It is for us, the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly
advanced.It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us – that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion;that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain;that this nation, under God,shall have a new birth of freedom;and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.3.The Declaration of Independence
When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.--That to
secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed,--That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness.Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be
changed for light and transient causes;and accordingly all experience hath shewn, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are
accustomed.But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security.—Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies;and such is now the necessity which
constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government.The history of
the present King of Great Britain [George III] is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States.To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world.……
第五篇：《高级英语2》教学大纲
《高级英语2》课程教学大纲
一、课程基本信息
课程编号：1511123 英文名称：Advanced English 教材：《高级英语2 第三版》 授课对象：英语专业三四年级 开课学期：4 学分/学时：3/64 先修课程:高级英语1 教学方式：讲解和演示 课程简介：
《高级英语2》是一门训练学生综合英语技能尤其是阅读理解、语法修辞与写作能力的课程。通过鉴赏内容广泛的材料，包括涉及政治、经济、社会、语言、文学、教育、哲学、法律、宗教及自然科学等方面的名家作品，扩大学生的知识面，加深学生对社会和人生的理解，培养学生对名篇的分析和理解能力、逻辑思维能力与独立思考的能力，增强对文化差异的敏感性，巩固和提高学生英语语言技能。
二、课程教学目的和要求
通过该课程的学习，使学生的英语水平有较大的提高，最终帮助学生通过英语专业八级。帮助学生继续打好语言基本功，进一步扩大知识面，不断提高学生修辞和判断评判的能力。通过《高级英语2》的教学，使学生抓住所读作品的要点，分析文章的结果、分清文章体裁。掌握常见修辞手法以及语言技巧，复习巩固掌握构词法，进而提高他们的英语阅读理解能力和欣赏水平。
三、教学内容与学识分配
Lesson 1: Pub talk and the king English（8课时）
重点内容: using many elliptical and short, simple sentences to achieve certain effect 教学方法：Introduction to the Passage 课后作业：What is the organizational pattern of this piece of narration? Lesson 2: Marrakech（6课时）
重点内容: clever choice of words and scenes and tenses 教学方法：introduct 课后作业:Know ways of developing the thesis of a piece of exposition Lesson 3:Inaugural Address(January 20,1961)（6课时）重点内容:Kennedys Inaugural Address 教学方法:Make a situational dialogue.课后作业:Remember the new world
Lesson 4: Love is Fallacy（6课时）重点内容:How to understand love 教学方法:Reading 课后作业:Translate the sentence Lesson 5: The sad Yong Men（6课时）重点内容: The meaning of Logical fallacies 教学方法: tell some stories 课后作业:Exercises Oral Presentation Lesson 6: Loving and Hating New York（6课时）
重点内容: A brief introduction to his views in Culture and Technology in the Twentieth Century 教学方法: Find some pictures of it.课后作业:Practice with World and Expressions Lesson 7:The Ones Who Walk Away from Omelas（6课时）重点内容:Variations on theme by William James 教学方法: make use of PPT 课后作业:Word and Expressions Lesson 8;The Future of the English（6课时）重点内容:culture and economy 教学方法:reading some history 课后作业:Translation the following sentences into Chinese Lesson 9:The loons（8课时）重点内容:The loons life 教学方法:on-the-spot investigation 课后作业:question on structure and style Lesson 10:The Discovery of What It Means to Be an American（6课时）重点内容:The way to be American 教学方法:search for date 课后作业:Explain the sentences
四、教学方法
本课程要求加大课堂教学过程中的互动性、交际性的活动突破以往语言表面层次上的教与学注意学生学会对语义、语篇、修辞等深层次的理解、掌握。在更高层次上提高学生解决难字、难句、同义词、近义词辨义和英语释义的能力同时要使学生理解幽默、讽刺、含蓄、夸张、比喻、象征等各种修辞手段熟悉各种写作技巧与手法介绍使用各种高级工具书以及其他手段包括上网收集料、解决困难的重要性每课后都配有大量的相关练习包括阅读理解、词汇研究、问题分析、中英互译和写作练习等。
五、平时成绩的分配
平时成绩的分配“高级英语”课程平时成绩占课程总成绩的30%，成绩根据学生完成作业的情况、在课堂上的综合表现以及参加小组活动和其他学习中心组织的活动的情况综合而定。除教材中的随堂练习外，还应至少布置三次作业，检查学生的综合能力，要求学生独立完成，作为形成性考核成绩的主要依据。
六、考核方式
“高级英语”课程属于考试课程，考试成绩占课程总成绩的70%，考试内容按教学大纲的要求进行，由各任课教师命题，各二级学院进行组题。考试内容应紧密结合所学教材，重点考核学生的写作能力。
七、参考书目
《高级英语学习指南》(长江出版社）《高级英语学习手册》（原子能出版社）执笔人签字： 教学院长签字： 二级学院院长签字：
注：中文、思政、体育、计算机基础课程由执笔者和教研室主任签字。
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