第一篇：中国的人力资源状况白皮书(汉英对照版)
中国的人力资源状况 前 言
中国是世界上人口最多的发展中国家，13亿人口中蕴涵着极其丰富的人力资源。积极开发人力资源，充分发挥每个人的潜能和价值，促进人的全面发展，为国家现代化建设提供强大的人力和智力支撑，实现由人力资源大国向人力资源强国的转变，是中国政府始终面临的重大课题和不懈推进的重大事业。
新中国成立后特别是20世纪70年代末实行改革开放以来，中国政府坚持以人为本的理念，积极贯彻“尊重劳动、尊重知识、尊重人才、尊重创造”的方针，制定了一系列解决就业问题和发展教育、科技、文化、卫生、社会保障事业的政策措施，努力为实现人的全面发展创造良好的环境和条件。当前，中国就业形势保持总体稳定，国民受教育程度和健康水平显著提高，一大批国家建设急需的各类人才脱颖而出，为推动中国经济社会各项事业发展发挥了重要作用。
按照建立社会主义市场经济体制的要求，为推动科学发展，促进社会和谐，中国政府注重发挥市场配置人力资源的基础性作用，大力推进经济、科技、教育等体制改革，不断深化干部人事制度改革，实施科教兴国战略、人才强国战略和积极的就业政策，建立和完善人力资源培养、吸引、使用和保障机制，加快人力资源法制建设，走出了一条适合中国国情的人力资源开发道路 中国人力资源的基本状况
人口众多、劳动力资源丰富是中国的基本国情。多年来，中国政府采取积极有效的政策措施，大力加强人力资源的开发利用，使中国的人力资源状况发生了显著变化。人力资源规模不断扩大。截至2009年底，中国总人口达到133474万人（不含香港、澳门特别行政区和台湾省），其中，劳动力资源106969万人，比2000年增加11267万人；就业人员77995万人，其中，城镇就业人员31120万人，分别比2000年增加5910万人和7969万人。
国民受教育水平明显提高。中国实行教育优先的发展战略，建成了比较完善的现代国民教育体系。2000年实现了基本普及九年制义务教育和基本扫除青壮年文盲的目标。高中阶段教育普及率大幅 伴随着中国经济社会的发展和人民生活水平的提高，中国的人力资源事业有了长足进步。但中国作为一个发展中国家，仍然面临着就业压力大、人力资源结构性矛盾突出、高层次创新型人才匮乏等问题。中国人力资源发展面临的机遇和挑战前所未有。
在新的历史起点上，中国政府将坚持以人为本，关心人的全面发展，鼓励和支持人人都作贡献，人人都能成才；坚持以促进教育公平为重点，以提高教育质量为核心，构建完备的终身教育体系，让全体人民学有所教、学有所成、学有所用；坚持就业是民生之本，更好地实施扩大就业的发展战略和更加积极的就业政策，促进以创业带动就业；坚持人才优先，更好地实施人才强国战略，突出培养创新型科技人才，大力开发国民经济社会发展重点领域急需紧缺专门人才，统筹推进各类人才建设；坚持管理创新，通过不断深化改革，扩大开放，破除不合时宜的体制机制障碍，营造充满活力、富有效率、更加开放的社会环境。
在未来的岁月里，中国人民的智慧与力量一定会更好地迸发出来，国家的发展与进步一定会有更加坚实的人力与人才资源基础
人才资源开发取得积极进展。人才是指具有一定的专业知识或专门技能，进行创造性劳动并对社会作出贡献的人，是人力资源中能力和素质较高的劳动者。中国政府制定和实施一系列重大方针政策，统筹推进党政人才、企业经营管理人才、专业技术人才、高技能人才、农村实用人才和社会工作人才等各类人才队伍建设。经过多年努力，人才资源总量不断增加，人才素质明显提高，人才结构进一步优化，人才使用效能逐渐提高。截至2008年底，全国人才资源总量达到1.14亿人。
收入、卫生、社会保障等人力资源发展的保障条件逐步改善。随着社会经济持续快速发展，城乡居民收入实现了稳步增长。城镇居民人均可支配收入，由1949年的不足100元人民币提高到2008年的15781元人民币；农村居民人均纯收入由1949年的44元人民币提高到2008年的4761元人民币。国家大力开展公共卫生体系建设，为国民健康水平的提高提供保障，截至2009年底，全国共有卫生机构28.9万个、卫生技术人员522万人、医院和卫生院床位396万张。近年来，中国政府大力推动社会保障制度建设，加快建立覆盖城乡居民的社会保障体系，努力实现人人享有基本生活保障。2009年，城镇基本养老保险参保人数达23550万人；城镇职工基本医疗保险、城镇居民基本医疗保险和新型农村合作医疗保险参保人数合计超过12亿人；失业、工伤和生育保险参保人数分别达到12715万人、14896万人和10876万人。中国实行最低生活保障制度，截至2009年底，有2347.7万城镇居民和4759.3万农村居民享受了政府最低生活保障。国家在全国范围内实施有计划、有组织的大规模扶贫开发，2009年农村贫困人口减少为3597万人，贫困发生率为3.6%
二、人力资源开发的法律体系
中国坚持依法治国方略，积极推进民主立法、科学立法，为人人享有公正平等的发展权利，为科学开发人力资源提供法制保障。经过多年发展，中国逐步形成以宪法为根本依据，以劳动法、公务员法为基础，以劳动合同法、就业促进法、劳动争议调解仲裁法为主体，其他单项法律和行政法规为重要组成部分的人力资源开发法律体系。促进就业的法律制度
为实现扩大和稳定就业的发展目标，1994年中国颁布《中华人民共和国劳动法》，明确提出国家通过促进经济和社会发展，创造就业条件，扩大就业机会。2007年颁布《中华人民共和国就业促进法》，确立了国家执行“劳动者自主择业、市场调节就业、政府促进就业”的方针，建立促进就业的政府责任体系，实施有利于促进就业的产业、投资、财税政策，统筹城乡、区域和不同社会群体的就业，建立失业预警制度，完善公共就业服务制度、职业培训制度和就业援助制度。这些法律的实施，有效推动了经济发展与促进就业的良性互动。
国家保障劳动者依法享有平等就业和自主择业的权利。1988年以来，颁布了《中华人民共和国残疾人保障法》、《中华人民共和国妇女权益保障法》、《中华人民共和国未成年人保护法》和《女职工劳动保护规定》、《禁止使用童工规定》、《残疾人就业条例》等法律和行政法规。《就业促进法》专门设立了“公平就业”章，规定劳动者就业不因民族、种族、性别、宗教信仰等不同而受歧视，并特别指出农村劳动者进城就业享有与城镇劳动者平等的劳动权利。
国家通过立法促进职业教育和职业培训。1995年以来，颁布了《中华人民共和国教育法》、《中华人民共和国职业教育法》、《中华人民共和国民办教育促进法》等法律，建立了“市场引导培训、培训促进就业”的职业教育与培训机制。依托各级各类职业院校和职业培训机构，完善多形式、多层次的职业培训，形成不同层次教育相衔接、职业教育和普通教育相沟通的职业教育和职业培训制度。
国家积极规范专业技术人员的管理。1993年至今，中国颁布了《中华人民共和国教师法》、《中华人民共和国执业医师法》、《中华人民共和国律师法》、《中华人民共和国注册会计师法》、《中华人民共和国注册建筑师条例》等法律法规，对专业技术人员的资质条件、职业资格标准、接受继续教育权利以及职业道德规范作出明确规定，规范了专业技术人员的职业准入，提高了专业服务质量。
公共人力资源管理的法律制度
1993年，中国颁布《国家公务员暂行条例》，实行公务员制度。2006年开始施行《中华人民共和国公务员法》，并陆续出台了公务员录用、培训、考核、奖励、职务任免与升降、调任、处分、申诉、辞去公职、辞退、录用考试违纪违规行为处理、新录用公务员任职定级等一系列配套规章。在机关与事业单位工资福利、事业单位人事管理、人才流动管理、人力资源宏观调控等方面，国家制定规范性文件1000多件，涵盖了公共人力资源管理的主要环节。人力资源权益保护的法律制度
20世纪80年代中期，中国开始试行劳动合同制度。到90年代，《中华人民共和国劳动法》正式确立了劳动合同制度。2007年颁布的《中华人民共和国劳动合同法》及此后出台的《中华人民共和国劳动合同法实施条例》，进一步完善了劳动合同制度，明确用人单位和劳动者的权利和义务，对劳动合同的订立、履行、变更、解除或者终止以及相应的法律责任作出了明确规定，同时针对劳动用工形式多样化的发展趋势，对劳务派遣和非全日制用工等行为专门进行了规范。中国积极发挥集体协商和集体合同制度的作用。《中华人民共和国劳动法》和《中华人民共和国劳动合同法》相继对集体合同制度作出了规定。鼓励企业积极开展集体协商，签订集体合同。逐步形成以企业集体协商为主体、以区域性和行业性集体协商为补充的集体合同制度框架。近年来，集体合同制度覆盖面不断扩大，实效性逐步增强，初步建立了以工会或职工代表与企业或企业组织平等协商为特征的集体劳动关系调整机制。
为公正、及时解决劳动争议，中国2007年颁布了《中华人民共和国劳动争议调解仲裁法》，明确劳动争议调解和仲裁的范围、程序、组织机构、人员和处理机制。建立由政府部门、工会组织、企业组织共同协调劳动关系的三方机制，强化调解、完善仲裁、加强司法救济，及时妥善处理劳动争议，维护当事人合法权益。颁布实施《劳动保障监察条例》，明确了劳动保障监察的职责、实施、法律责任，为维护劳动者的合法权益提供重要法律保障
三、履行政府公共管理服务职责近年来，中国政府积极发挥人力资源公共管理与服务的职能作用，加快职能转变，健全政府责任体系，努力为劳动者的体面劳动和优秀人才的脱颖而出，创造良好的政策环境与社会环境。实施积极的就业政策
长期以来，中国面临着劳动力供大于求的总量性矛盾，稳定和扩大就业的任务十分繁重。中国政府始终把促进就业作为经济社会发展的优先目标，以充分开发和合理利用人力资源为出发点，实施扩大就业的发展战略和积极的就业政策，促进城乡劳动者提高整体素质，逐步实现更加充分的社会就业。不断强化各级政府在促进就业方面的责任，持续加大公共投入，促进平等就业。通过加强就业援助，开展职业技能培训，帮助就业困难人员和零就业家庭实现就业。建设城乡统一的人力资源市场，为城乡劳动者提供平等的就业机会和服务。通过政策扶持和市场导向，解决了国有企业3000多万下岗职工再就业问题，实现下岗职工基本生活保障向失业保险的并轨。2005年至2009年，全国城镇新增就业5000多万人，农业富余劳动力向非农产业转移就业近4500万人。2009年末，城镇登记失业人数921万人，城镇登记失业率4.3%。
2008年国际金融危机爆发后，为应对国际金融危机的冲击，中国政府实施更加积极的就业政策。实施困难企业缓缴社会保险费或降低部分社会保险费率、相关税收减免等政策，鼓励企业稳定和增加就业。实施特别职业培训计划，开展就业服务系列活动，多渠道开辟就业岗位。以高校毕业生就业为重点，大力促进高校毕业生到城乡基层、到中小企业和非公有制企业就业。2009年全年城镇新增就业超过1100万人，高校毕业生就业率达到87.4%，下岗失业人员再就业超过500万人，困难群体再就业超过150万人。实施人才强国战略
人才是经济社会发展的第一资源，在国家现代化建设中发挥着越来越重要的作用。中国历来重视人才工作，进入新世纪作出实施人才强国战略的重大决策，努力造就数以亿计的高素质劳动者、数以千万计的专门人才和一大批拔尖创新人才，建设规模宏大、结构合理、素质较高的人才队伍。2001年，中国政府将实施人才战略纳入国民经济和社会发展五年规划。2006年以来，加强对人才资源开发的顶层设计和系统规划，先后制定《国家中长期科学和技术发展规划纲要（2006—2020年）》、《国家中长期人才发展规划纲要（2010—2020年）》和《国家中长期教育改革和发展规划纲要（2010—2020年）》等三个国家中长期发展规划纲要，确立在经济社会发展中人才优先发展的战略布局，统筹城乡、区域、产业、行业和不同所有制人才资源开发，促进人人平等享受人才政策和平等参与人才开发，努力实现各类人才队伍协调发展。
为适应建设创新型国家的需要，中国政府设立“863计划”、“973计划”、国家科技支撑计划、自然科学基金等国家科技计划（基金），建设国家工程研究中心和国家工程实验室，实施“百千万人才工程”、“长江学者奖励计划”等重大人才项目，不断增加科技投入，实施专业技术人才知识更新工程，培养造就了一支具有较大规模和较高水平的科技人才队伍，引进了一批海外高层次人才。2008年，全国研究与发展（R&D）折合全时人员达196.54万人年，其中科学家和工程师159.34万人年，分别是1991年的2.9倍和3.4倍；全国设立博士后科研流动站2146个、博士后科研工作站1642个，博士后研究人员达7万多人。
为适应走新型工业化道路和产业结构优化升级的需要，中国政府实施国家技能人才振兴计划，建立公共实训基地和国家高技能人才培养示范基地，努力培养造就一支门类齐全、技艺精湛的技能人才队伍。国家大力培养农村实用人才队伍，实施农村实用人才素质提升计划和新农村实用人才培训工程，全面提高农村实用人才的科技素质、职业技能和经营能力，大力培养教师、医生、农业技术人员等农村发展急需人才，鼓励和引导各类人才向农村流动。促进教育公平
全面实现城乡免费义务教育。从2006年开始，中国政府改革并逐步调整完善了农村义务教育经费保障机制，并从2008年开始，免除城市义务教育阶段学生学杂费，将九年义务教育全面纳入国家财政保障范围。
积极推进义务教育均衡发展。坚持公共教育资源向农村地区、边远贫困地区和民族地区倾斜，实施国家贫困地区义务教育工程、西部地区农村寄宿制学校建设工程、农村中小学现代远程教育工程、中西部农村初中改造工程、中西部地区特殊教育建设规划等扶持计划，努力缩小城乡和区域差距，保障困难群体接受教育。
健全国家助学体系。中国政府在普通高校、职业学校实行国家奖学金、助学金和国家助学贷款等制度，加大资助力度，保障家庭经济困难学生不因贫困而失学。2009年底，中等职业学校学生受助面达到90%，高等学校学生受助面超过20%，资助学生4306万人次。从2009年开始，国家对中等职业学校农村家庭经济困难学生和涉农专业学生免除学费。加强人力资源培训
国家把干部教育培训摆在突出位置，制定颁布了《干部教育培训工作条例（试行）》、《2006—2010年全国干部教育培训规划》和《关于2008—2012年大规模培训干部工作的实施意见》。围绕政府中心工作以及职位要求，对公务员进行初任培训、任职培训、专门业务培训和在职培训，实施对口培训计划，促进学历培训，实行挂职锻炼，有效开发公务员人力资源，促进公务员职业的发展。国家对专业技术人员实施专业技术人才知识更新工程，有计划、有步骤地在经济社会发展和科技发展的重要领域，对中高层专业技术人才，开展新理论、新知识、新技术、新方法的专项培训，2005年至2009年，共培训300万名中高级专业人才。构建分层分类的专业技术人才继续教育体系，充分发挥各方面积极性，逐步形成以需求为导向，政府主导与单位自主相结合，个人履行义务与自觉自愿学习相结合的继续教育运行机制。2009年，全国专业技术人员参加继续教育达3000万人次。为加强西部地区人才开发，中国政府制定《关于进一步加强西部地区人才队伍建设的意见》，实施新疆、西藏少数民族科技骨干和青海三江源地区专业技术人才培养计划。2009年共培养2888名少数民族科技骨干人才和急需专业技术人才。
针对不同群体就业需要和劳动者职业生涯发展不同阶段需要，国家开展相应的职业培训，建立了以技工学校为骨干、职业培训机构为补充的职业培训体系，并充分发挥工会、共青团、妇联等人民团体和社会组织在职业培训等方面的作用。截至2009年底，全国共有技工学校和就业训练中心6000多所、民办职业培训机构2万多所；建立巾帼科技示范基地26万多个，为1.2亿人次妇女提供各类教育培训，增强了妇女的自我发展能力。针对城乡未能继续升学的初高中毕业生，实施劳动预备制培训，帮助其掌握一门职业技能或取得相应职业资格证书后再进入劳动力市场。针对失业人员开展再就业培训，加强培训的针对性、实用性和有效性，提高失业人员的再就业能力。针对有创业愿望并具备一定创业条件的城乡劳动者开展创业能力培训，提高其创办小企业的能力。针对拟向非农产业和城镇转移的农村富余劳动力开展职业技能培训，实施“阳光工程”、“农村劳动力转移培训计划”、“星火科技培训”、“雨露计划”等专项培训，提高其转移就业能力。为全面提高劳动者素质，增强劳动者的就业能力和工作能力，1994年以来，国家建立职业资格证书制度。截至2009年底，全国累计有1843.3万人取得各类专业技术人员职业资格证书；累计有超过1亿人次取得不同等级技能人员职业资格证书。完善人力资源公共服务
逐步增加公共投入。2008年，中国人力资本投资占GDP比例达到10.75%。2009年，中央财政用于教育支出1981.39亿元人民币，比2007年增长84.1%；用于医疗卫生支出1273.21亿元人民币，比2007年增长91.66%；用于就业和社会保障支出3296.67亿元人民币，比2007年增长43.2%；用于科学技术领域的支出1512.02亿元人民币，比2007年增长51.2%。
完善公共就业和人才服务体系。建立县区以上综合性服务机构，街道（乡、镇）社区服务窗口以及就业训练、创业服务等服务实体，形成了覆盖省、市、县（区）、街道（乡、镇）、社区（行政村）的五级服务网络。截至2009年底，全国共有县（区）以上公共就业和人才服务机构1万多个；街道、乡、镇服务窗口共3.7万个，覆盖了97%的街道和89%的乡、镇。公共就业和人才服务职能不断增强，免费开展政策咨询、市场供求信息发布、职业介绍、职业指导、就业援助、创业服务，承担就业登记、失业登记管理，提供人力资源社会保障事务代理、档案管理、考试认证、专家服务等服务项目。
提高人力资源服务的信息化程度。实施“金保工程”，初步建立以中央、省、市三级网络为依托，覆盖全国的统一的劳动和社会保障电子政务系统。通过发行社会保障卡，开通12333专用公益服务电话号码、短信平台和建立政府服务网站等形式，为政策咨询、信息获取、业务办理、个人账户查询等提供便捷的信息化服务。深化干部人事制度改革
改革开放以来，中国不断深化干部人事制度改革，先后颁布《深化干部人事制度改革纲要》和《2010—2020年深化干部人事制度改革规划纲要》，针对党政机关、事业单位和国有企业的不同特点实行分类管理，逐步形成广纳群贤、人尽其才、能上能下、公平公正、充满活力的干部人事制度。
党政机关推行公务员制度。从进入队伍到职务晋升引进竞争机制，普遍推行公开选拔、竞争上岗等竞争性选拔干部方式，促进了优秀人才脱颖而出。2006年至2009年，全国通过考试共录用公务员52.8万余人。2003年至2009年，全国共公开选拔党政领导干部4万人，各级党政机关通过竞争上岗走上领导岗位的干部共33.9万人。在干部选拔任用、考核评价、管理监督等环节充分发扬民主，民主推荐成为干部选拔任用的必经程序，民意调查、民主测评得到广泛运用，干部工作民主化程度进一步提高。干部交流力度不断加大，重点部门、关键岗位领导干部交流形成制度，围绕国家经济社会发展战略和人才战略、地方经济社会发展布局和支柱产业及重大项目的建设，加强了市、县和中央国家机关、省级党政机关之间领导干部的相互交流，从中央国家机关和东部发达地区选拔大批干部到西部地区挂职、任职。2003年至2009年，全国机关干部共交流230.2万人。完善职务任期、退休和辞退、辞职等制度，推进干部能上能下，形成正常的更新交替机制。实行国家统一的职务与级别相结合的公务员工资制度，合理体现了工作职责大小与工资高低的关系。事业单位推行人员聘用制度。通过签订聘用合同，规范单位和职工的人事关系。建立岗位设置、公开招聘、竞争上岗、考核奖罚、辞职辞退等制度，逐步形成权责清晰、分类科学、机制灵活、监管有力的事业单位人事管理制度。截至2009年底，全国事业单位签订聘用合同的人员达到80%。2009年，22个省（区、市）事业单位新进人员中，采用公开招聘方式的占总数80%以上。事业单位实行岗位绩效工资制度，初步建立了与工作人员岗位职责、工作业绩、实际贡献紧密联系和鼓励创新创造的分配激励机制，调动了事业单位各类人力资源的积极性和创造性。
国有企业人事制度不断健全完善。按照现代企业制度要求，国有企业推进规范董事会的建设，为企业持续快速健康发展提供了体制保障。建立健全企业经营管理人才选拔任用、业绩考核、激励监督等管理制度。建立市场机制调节、企业自主分配、职工民主参与、政府监控指导的工资分配制度，促进了企业的发展和职工工资水平的提高。注重发挥市场配置人才的基础性作用，初步建立起市场化选人用人机制，2003年至2009年通过公开招聘、竞争上岗等方式选聘的经营管理人才，从33.4万人增加到52.1万人。建立国家荣誉和表彰奖励制度
中国政府坚持精神奖励与物质奖励相结合、以精神奖励为主的原则，建立健全国家荣誉和奖励制度。
国家设立“全国劳动模范”和“全国先进工作者”荣誉称号，授予在国家建设事业中作出重大贡献的劳动者。1989年以来，中国政府一般每五年召开一次全国劳动模范和先进工作者表彰大会，对全国各行各业涌现出的先进人物予以表彰，其中授予工人、农民、企业管理人员等“全国劳动模范”荣誉称号，授予机关事业单位工作人员“全国先进工作者”荣誉称号。截至目前共表彰“全国劳动模范”和“全国先进工作者”14578人。
国家设立科学技术奖，奖励在科学技术工作中作出突出贡献的公民、组织。自2000年以来，共有27772人获得国家科学技术奖。其中有16名杰出科学家获得国家最高科学技术奖。国家设立科学院和工程院院士称号，中国科学院院士和中国工程院院士是国家在科学技术领域和工程科技领域设立的最高学术称号，截至2009年底，共评选产生中国科学院院士1143人、中国工程院院士861人。自1990年起，中国政府实行政府特殊津贴制度，向作出突出贡献的专家、学者、技术人员和高技能人才颁发荣誉证书，发放政府特殊津贴。到2009年，全国共有15.8万人享受政府特殊津贴。建立全国优秀专业技术人才表彰制度，自1999年以来共有200人获得“全国杰出专业技术人才”称号。建立中华技能大奖和全国技术能手评选表彰制度，自1995年以来已有120人荣获“中华技能大奖”称号，2976人荣获“全国技术能手”称号，树立了一批中国高技能人才楷模人物。建立全国农村优秀人才表彰制度，自2000年以来已表彰了160名全国农村优秀人才
四、发挥市场配置的基础性作用
随着社会主义市场经济体制在中国的逐步建立，中国政府遵循人力资源开发的客观规律，以市场配置人力资源为改革取向，尊重劳动者的自主择业权，努力培育和发展人力资源市场，逐步实现人力资源从计划配置到市场配置的转变。人力资源市场配置机制基本形成
20世纪80年代以来，以公有制为主体，多种所有制形式共同发展，逐步形成了多元化的市场用人主体。1998年至2009年，在城镇从业人员中，国有单位就业人员从9058万人下降到6420万人，占城镇就业人员总数的比例从41.9%下降到20.6%；有限责任公司和股份有限公司就业人员从894万人上升到3389万人，占城镇就业人员总数的比例从4.1%上升到10.9%；私营单位和个体经济就业人员从3232万人上升到9789万人，占城镇就业人员总数的比例从15.0%提高到31.5%。
20世纪80年代中期以来，中国逐步改革计划经济体制下“统包统配”的固定工制度，落实单位用工自主权和劳动者自主择业权，以双向选择、自主协商、订立劳动合同作为确立劳动关系的基本方式，增强了人力资源市场的活力和效率。为适应建立社会主义市场经济体制的要求，中国政府改革社会保障制度、户籍制度、高校毕业生分配制度，不断破除劳动者自由流动的体制性障碍，劳动者跨地区、跨部门、跨行业流动日趋活跃。2009年，在各类人力资源服务机构登记求职的劳动者达到9700万人次，成功实现就业和转换工作的达到3600万人次，分别比2000年增加7700万人次和2600万人次。同年，全国外出就业和本地非农从业6个月以上的农村劳动力总数达到22978万人，其中外出农民工达到14533万人，就近到二、三产业实现就业的本地农民工达到8445万人。人力资源服务业发展迅速
20世纪80年代以来，中国人力资源服务业发展规模和水平不断提升。服务领域和内容日益多元化，从最初的招聘服务、人事代理发展到包括培训服务、劳务派遣、就业指导、人才测评、管理咨询和人力资源服务外包等多种业务，形成较为完善的服务产业链。2008年，全国各类人力资源服务机构达4.9万余家，基本形成由公共就业和人才服务机构、民营人力资源服务机构、中外合资人力资源服务机构共同组成的多层次、多元化的人力资源市场服务体系。
中国加入世界贸易组织以来，积极履行承诺，使进入中国市场的外资人力资源服务机构逐步增加。2009年，中国境内的中外合资人才服务机构从2003年的30家增加到160家
五、加强对劳动者权益的保护
尊重人的劳动权利，注重劳动者的权益保护，实现人的体面劳动，促进人的全面发展，是中国政府一贯坚持的发展理念。中国政府采取一系列政策措施加强劳动者权益保护，有效促进人力资源的良性发展。保障平等就业
近年来，中国政府加强统一规范的人力资源市场的建设与管理，努力打破历史原因造成的城乡分割、身份分割和地区分割等问题，消除人力资源市场的体制性障碍，形成城乡劳动者平等就业的制度。国家有关部门通过完善市场监管体系，开展人力资源市场执法检查活动，清理整顿市场不法行为，有力维护了求职者等市场主体的合法权益。
国家高度重视并保障妇女享有与男子平等的劳动权利，努力消除阻碍妇女平等就业的壁垒。动员和组织社会力量拓宽吸纳女性劳动力就业的渠道，制定和执行扶持妇女自主创业的政策。充分发挥各级妇联组织在反映妇女诉求、促进平等就业和同工同酬、提供维权服务等方面的积极作用。到2008年，全国就业人口中女性超过45.4%。
中国政府加强对残疾人就业的统筹规划，实行集中就业与分散就业相结合的方针，保障残疾人的劳动权利。制定和实施促进残疾人就业政策，规定用人单位安排残疾人就业的比例不得低于1.5%，对安置残疾人员达到职工总数25%比例的集中使用残疾人的用人单位给予税收优惠，指导和帮助残疾人组织兴办残疾人福利企业，鼓励和支持残疾人通过多种形式灵活就业。中国各级残疾人联合会努力维护残疾人合法权益，帮助残疾人平等参与社会生活。建立省、市、县级残疾人就业服务机构3043个，专门为残疾人提供就业援助服务。截至2009年底，全国城镇实际在业残疾人数443.4万，农村残疾人有1757万实现了稳定就业。
国家高度重视保障农民工权益。农民工是中国改革开放和工业化、城镇化进程中出现的特殊劳动群体，为国家经济和社会发展作出了重要贡献。2006年，国务院建立农民工工作联席会议制度，统筹协调和指导全国农民工工作。取消各种针对农民进城就业的不合理限制，加强劳动安全卫生培训，扩大农民工参加社会保险覆盖面，建立养老保险接续转移制度，实施“春暖行动”、“春风行动”等专项扶持计划。截至2009年底，有8014.82万农民工成为工会会员，近80%的农民工随迁子女在城镇公办中小学免费接受义务教育，全国参加工伤保险、医疗保险、城镇企业职工基本养老保险、失业保险的农民工分别达到5587万人、4335万人、2647万人和1643万人。建立劳动关系协调机制
全面推进劳动合同制度的实施。截至2009年底，全国规模以上企业劳动合同签订率达到96.5%；劳动合同内容趋于规范，劳动合同履行情况良好。积极推进集体协商和集体合同制度，增进劳动者与用人单位之间的相互理解和信任，推动劳动关系双方互利共赢。截至2009年底，全国当期有效集体合同达到70.3万份，覆盖职工9400多万人。充分发挥协调劳动关系三方机制的作用。2009年，全国地级以上城市和26个省份的县（市）区建立了由政府、工会和企业方面代表组成的协调劳动关系三方机制，各级协调劳动关系三方机制组织共计1.4万多家。协调劳动关系三方机制围绕劳动关系的重大问题，积极沟通，加强合作，消除分歧，在促进劳动关系和谐稳定中发挥了重要作用。
大力推动和谐劳动关系创建活动。2006年，中国开始开展“创建劳动关系和谐企业与工业园区”活动，通过制定、实施和谐劳动关系创建标准、推动建立劳动关系协调机制、表彰先进典型等措施，促进企业和工业园区内劳动关系的和谐稳定。截至2009年底，全国31个省（区、市）开展了和谐劳动关系创建活动。
积极发挥工会组织的重要作用。中国工会组织是职工利益的代表者和维护者，在创建和谐劳动关系的过程中，发挥着重要的、不可替代的作用。2009年，全国基层工会组织有184.5万个，覆盖企事业机关单位395.9万家，全国工会会员总数达2.263亿人。各级工会组织积极履行维权职责，帮助指导劳动者与用人单位依法订立劳动合同，代表职工与企业开展集体协商和签订集体合同，组织职工参与本单位民主决策、民主管理和民主监督，参与劳动人事争议调解仲裁，为职工提供法律服务，督促用人单位遵守国家法律法规。
加强对企业职工的人文关怀。近年来，针对个别企业用工方面存在的问题，中国各级政府采取积极措施，督促、倡导企业切实加强对职工的人文关怀，改善职工生产生活条件，完善职工诉求表达机制，建立职工交流互助平台，开展职工心理健康咨询服务。同时积极引导社会舆论，努力形成共建和谐劳动关系的良好社会氛围。公正及时解决劳动人事争议
通过调解仲裁解决劳动人事争议，是一项具有中国特色的权益救济和保障制度。仲裁委员会由政府行政主管部门代表、工会代表和用人单位代表三个方面组成，以保证争议案件审理过程的透明度和公正性。截至2009年底，中国共有仲裁办案机构4800多个、仲裁员3.3万人。
劳动人事调解仲裁工作遵循公正原则，鼓励协商，先行调解，及时妥善处理劳动人事争议，维护当事人合法权益。2009年，全国各级劳动人事争议仲裁机构共处理劳动人事争议案件87.5万件；立案受理劳动争议案件68.4万件，比上年下降1.3%；涉及劳动者101.7万人，比上年下降16.3%。依据中国法律，当事人对劳动人事争议仲裁裁决不服的，可以向人民法院提起诉讼。2009年，中国各级人民法院审结劳动争议案件31.7万件，有效维护了当事人双方合法权益。加大劳动保障监察力度
劳动保障监察执法是维护劳动者合法权益的重要途径。劳动保障监察机构的主要职责是，积极宣传劳动保障法律法规，接受并依法查处劳动者投诉举报案件，并主动对用人单位守法情况进行监督检查。截至2009年底，中国共建立劳动保障监察机构3291个，配备专职监察员2.3万名。近年来，劳动保障监察机构开展专项检查，对违反劳动保障法律法规的突出问题进行集中整治；加强对社会反映强烈的重大违法案件的专项督办工作，及时组织查处。通过监察执法，保障了劳动者在职业介绍、劳动合同签订、工作时间、工资支付、社会保险、特殊劳动保护等方面权益的落实。2009年，全国劳动保障监察机构共主动检查用人单位175.1万户，涉及劳动者9029.8万人，查处各类劳动保障违法案件43.9万件，督促用人单位为1073.7万名劳动者补签劳动合同。从2009年起，中国政府在全国60个城市开展了劳动保障监察网格化、网络化管理工作试点，对用人单位进行全面动态监管，实现对劳动纠纷的早期预防和及时介入。试点工作取得良好成效，即将在全国范围逐步推行
六、积极开展国际交流与合作
中国政府高度重视人力资源领域的国际交流与合作，认真履行国际义务，不断拓宽渠道和领域，推动形成全方位、多层次的交流与合作格局。
中国尊重《联合国宪章》促进人权和基本自由的宗旨与原则，致力于维护人的生存权和发展权，合理确定、依法颁布和逐步完善劳动标准。中国政府结合本国经济社会发展实际，先后批准了《男女同工同酬公约》、《准予就业最低年龄公约》、《消除最恶劣形式童工公约》、《消除就业和职业歧视公约》等25个国际劳工公约，并积极实施有关公约。中国不断完善本国人力资源开发的法律法规，推动包括国际劳工组织核心劳工公约的批准进程。
中国政府高度重视与国际劳工组织、联合国开发计划署、亚太经合组织、世界银行、亚洲开发银行等国际组织或机构建立人力资源领域的合作关系，积极发展与其他国家或地区双边或多边的人力资源交流与合作。中国政府自1983年正式恢复在国际劳工组织的活动以来，积极参加国际劳工事务，在促进就业、完善社会保障制度、建立和谐劳动关系以及制定劳动法律法规方面开展了一系列国际合作。2004年和2007年，中国与国际劳工组织共同举办了“中国就业论坛”和“亚洲就业论坛”。自1992年以来，中国政府积极参与亚太经合组织人力资源开发领域的合作并发挥出重要作用。2001年，中国成功举办亚太经合组织人力资源能力建设高峰会议，通过了《北京倡议》。2010年9月，第五届亚太经合组织人力资源开发部长级会议在北京举行，为亚太各经济体讨论金融危机后的就业、人力资源开发等提供重要平台。中国1994年加入国际社会保障协会成为正式会员。2004年第28届国际社会保障协会全球大会在北京召开，通过了《北京宣言》。截至2009年底，中国政府人力资源和社会保障部门已经与80多个国家和一些重要的国际组织建立了合作伙伴关系。为便利人员流动，中国先后与德国、韩国签署了社会保险互免协定。
改革开放以来，中国实施更加开放的人才政策。中国政府坚持“支持留学、鼓励回国、来去自由”的留学方针，努力拓宽留学渠道，积极吸引人才回国，为留学人员回国工作、为国服务、回国创业提供支持，创造良好的生活和工作环境。从1978年至2009年底，中国各类出国留学人员总数达162.07万人，留学回国人员总数达49.74万人。实施“中国留学人员回国创业启动支持计划”和“海外赤子为国服务行动计划”，鼓励和吸引海外留学人员回国工作、创业。中国重视和支持外国公民来华留学，从1978年至2009年，中国接受的来华留学人员累计达到169万人次，辐射190个国家和地区。中国积极利用国际教育培训资源培养人才，实施领导干部经济管理培训项目、高级公务员海外培训项目等培训计划，2009年共选派5.02万人出国（境）培训。中国积极协助联合国在华举行“国家竞争考试”，推荐优秀人才到国际组织任职，截至2009年底，共有1002名中国国际职员在各类国际组织中任职。中国政府积极引进国外智力，2009年来中国大陆工作的境外专家约48万人次。2009年末持外国人就业证在中国工作的外国人共22.3万人。截至2009年底，中国累计授予1099名外国专家“友谊奖”，授予43名外国专家“国际科学技术合作奖
结束语
伴随着中国经济社会的发展和人民生活水平的提高，中国的人力资源事业有了长足进步。但中国作为一个发展中国家，仍然面临着就业压力大、人力资源结构性矛盾突出、高层次创新型人才匮乏等问题。中国人力资源发展面临的机遇和挑战前所未有。
在新的历史起点上，中国政府将坚持以人为本，关心人的全面发展，鼓励和支持人人都作贡献，人人都能成才；坚持以促进教育公平为重点，以提高教育质量为核心，构建完备的终身教育体系，让全体人民学有所教、学有所成、学有所用；坚持就业是民生之本，更好地实施扩大就业的发展战略和更加积极的就业政策，促进以创业带动就业；坚持人才优先，更好地实施人才强国战略，突出培养创新型科技人才，大力开发国民经济社会发展重点领域急需紧缺专门人才，统筹推进各类人才建设；坚持管理创新，通过不断深化改革，扩大开放，破除不合时宜的体制机制障碍，营造充满活力、富有效率、更加开放的社会环境。
在未来的岁月里，中国人民的智慧与力量一定会更好地迸发出来，国家的发展与进步一定会有更加坚实的人力与人才资源基础
China's Human Resources Foreword China is a developing country with the largest population in the world.Its 1.3 billion people are a vast reservoir of human resources.Actively developing human resources, bringing into full play the po-tential ability and value of each individual and promoting the people's all-round development so as to provide powerful labor and intellectual support for China's modernization drive and to realize its transformation from a country rich in human resources to one with powerful human resources, is a significant aim the Chinese government has been cher-ishing and a major undertaking it has been unremittingly advancing.Since the founding of New China in 1949, and especially since the reform and opening-up policies were introduced in the late 1970s, the Chinese government, upholding the idea of putting people first, has ac-tively implemented the principle of respecting labor, knowledge, talent and creativity, and has adopted a series of policies and measures to boost employment and develop education, science and technology, culture, public health and social security, striving to create a favorable environment and conditions for the people's all-round development.Currently, China's employment situation is stable on the whole;the people's education and health levels have been remarkably improved;and a galaxy of talented people in various fields urgently needed by national construction has appeared.They are playing an important role in promoting the development of all economic and social undertakings.In accordance with the requirements of the socialist market econ-omy system, and to promote sustainable development and social har-mony, the Chinese government pays attention to the fundamental func-tion of the market in deploying human resources, while vigorously promoting institutional reforms in the fields of economy, science, technology and education, constantly deepening the reform of the cad-re related system, and pursuing the strategy of rejuvenating the country through science and education and that of strengthening the nation with trained personnel, and a proactive employment policy.It has also established and improved the human resources development mecha-nism to train, attract, use and support talented people, and accelerated human resources legal construction, thereby opening up a human re-sources development path conforming to China's national conditions
I.The Basic Situation of China's Human Resources A large population and rich human resources constitute the basic national situation of China.For years, the Chinese government has pursued proactive and effective policies and measures to enhance the development and utilization of human resources, bringing about re-markable changes in this field.Human resources growing in scale.By the end of 2009 China's total population had reached 1.33474 billion(excluding that of the Hong Kong and Macao Special Administrative Regions and Taiwan Province), which contains a labor force of 1.06969 billion persons, 112.67 million more than in 2000;the number of employees had reached 779.95 million, of whom 311.2 million were urban employees, increases of 59.1 million and 79.69 million, respectively, compared with the year 2000.chart 1 Changes in Labor Force(2000-2009)(Unit: 10,000 people)Chart 2 Changes in the Number of Employees in Urban and Rural Areas(2000-2009)(Unit: 10,000 people)
Remarkable improvement of education.China gives priority to education in its development strategy, and has established a com-paratively complete national modern educational system.In 2000 Nine-Year Compulsory Education was made universal throughout the country, and illiteracy among people between the ages of 20 and 50 was basically eliminated.The number of teenagers attending senior middle school has increased greatly;vocational education has been especially enhanced;and higher education is becoming more popular.In 2009 the total number of senior middle school students in China amounted to 24.3428 million;students at various secondary vocational schools numbered 21.9516 million;undergraduates studying at all sorts of universities and colleges numbered 21.4466 million and postgradu-ate students 1.4049 million.The development of national education has remarkably raised employees' educational level.By the end of 2009, the average schooling of people above 15 years old had reached nearly 8.9 years, while that of the majority of the working population was 9.5 years, of which 9.9% had received higher education.The average edu-cation time of newly increased labor force amounted to 12.4 years.Chart 3 Changes in the Number of University and College Graduates(2001-2009)(Unit: 10,000 people)
Optimized employment structure.With China's economic de-velopment and industrial structure adjustment, the proportion of those employed in primary industry has dropped significantly while that in tertiary industry has risen greatly.In 2009 the proportion of employ-ment in primary, secondary and tertiary industries changed to 38.1%, 27.8%, and 34.1% from 50%, 22.5% and 27.5%, respectively in 2000.Chart 4 Changes in the Employment Structure of Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Industries(2000-2009)
Good progress in talent development.People having professional knowledge or special skills who con-tribute to society through creative work are highly regarded in China.They are a high-ability and high-quality labor force among human re-sources.The Chinese government has drawn up and implemented a se-ries of major principles and policies to advance the building of contingents of people of all kinds for the Party and government, enter-prise operation and management, professional techniques, high tech-nology, rural affairs and social work in an all-round way.Through years of efforts, the number of talented people has maintained a stable increase, with improved quality, optimized structure and gradually ris-ing utilization efficiency.By the end of 2008 the total number of such people in China had reached 114 million.Gradual improvement of income, health care and social se-curity as guarantees for human resources development.With the country's sustained and rapid socioeconomic develop-ment, the income of urban and rural residents has maintained a stable growth.The average disposable income of urban residents increased from less than RMB 100 yuan in 1949 to 15,781 yuan in 2008;and the average net income of rural residents increased from RMB 44 yuan in 1949 to 4,761 yuan in 2008.Great efforts have been mobilized to build up the public health system so as to provide guarantee for improving the health of people nationwide.By the end of 2009 there were 289,000 medical institutions nationwide, 5.22 million medical workers and 3.96 million hospital beds in total.In recent years, the Chinese government has vigorously accelerated the building of the social secu-rity system to cover rural and urban residents and to provide basic life assurance for each individual.In 2009, urban basic retirement insur-ance covered 235.5 million people;the total number of urban employ-ees covered by basic medical insurance, urban residents covered by basic medical insurance and people in the countryside covered by the new rural cooperative medical insurance reached 1.2 billion;unemployment insurance, work-related injury insurance and maternity insurance covered 127.15 million, 148.96 million and 108.76 million people, respectively.China implements a subsistence allowance sys-tem.By the end of 2009, 23.477 million urban residents and 47.593 million rural residents had enjoyed subsistence allowances from the government.China has implemented planned and organized large-scale poverty relief programs throughout the country.In 2009, the rural population living in poverty was reduced to 35.97 million, with the nationwide poverty rate dropping to 3.6% II.Legal System for Human Resources Development II.Legal System for Human Resources Development
Adhering to the strategy based on the rule of law, China actively promotes democratic and scientific legislation to provide legal security for the fair and equal rights of individual development for everyone, and the scientific development of human resources.Through years of development, China has established a human resources development legal system with the Constitution as the essential basis, the Labor Law and the Civil Servant Law as the foundation, the Labor Contract Law, the Employment Promotion Law, and the Law on Mediation and Arbi-tration of Labor Disputes as the main contents, and other separate laws and administrative regulations as major components.Legal system for promoting employment
To achieve the goal of expanding and stabilizing employment, China promulgated the Labor Law of the People's Republic of China in 1994, which expressly states that the state strives to create job op-portunities and expand employment through promoting economic and social development.The Employment Promotion Law of the People's Republic of China adopted in 2007 has laid down the principle of “in-dependent job-seeking by workers, employment based on market forces and the promotion of employment by the government,” requir-ing the building of a government responsibility system for promoting employment, the implementing of industry, investment, finance and taxation policies favorable for boosting employment, making an over-all plan for balanced employment between urban and rural areas, in various regions and among different social groups.According to this Employment Promotion Law the state will establish an unemployment precaution system, improve the public employment service, vocational training and employment aid systems.The enforcement of these laws has greatly facilitated the interaction between economic development and employment promotion.The state ensures that workers in China enjoy the rights of equal employment and independent job-seeking in accordance with the law.Since 1988 China has promulgated the Law of the People's Republic of China for the Protection of Disabled Persons, Law of the People's Republic of China for the Protection of Women's Rights and Interests, Law of the People's Republic of China for the Protection of Minors, Regulations Concerning the Labor Protection of Female Staff and Workers, Provisions Concerning the Prohibition of the Use of Child Labor, Regulations on the Employment of the Disabled, and other laws and administrative regulations.The Employment Promotion Law has a special chapter on equal employment, which stipulates that no em-ployees shall be discriminated against on the grounds of ethnicity, race, gender and religion, and specially provides that rural employees work-ing in cities should enjoy the same labor rights as urban employees.The state also promotes vocational education and training through legislation.Since 1995 China has promulgated the Education Law of the People's Republic of China, Vocational Education Law of the Peo-ple's Republic of China, Law of the People's Republic of China on Promotion of Privately-run Schools and similar laws, and has estab-lished a vocational education and training mechanism on the principle of “the market guiding training, and training promoting employment.” Based on vocational education institutions and training organizations at various levels, China has improved multi-form and multi-level vo-cational education, and formed a vocational education and training system connecting education at various levels, and linking vocational education with general education.Proactive efforts have been made by the state to standardize the management of professional and technical staff.Since 1993 China has promulgated the Teachers Law of the People's Republic of China, Law of the People's Republic of China on Medical Practitioners, Law of the People's Republic of China on Lawyers, Law of the People's Republic of China on Certified Public Accountants, Regulations of the People's Republic of China on Certified Public Architects, and other related laws and regulations.These laws and regulations stipulate the qualifi-cations and certificate standards of professional and technical staff, and their right to receive continuing education as well as their professional ethics, thereby standardizing the employment requirements for profes-sional and technical staff and improving the quality of professional services.Legal system for public human resources management
In 1993 China promulgated the Interim Regulations on Civil Ser-vants, which launched the civil service system.The Civil Servants Law of the People's Republic of China went into effect in 2006, since when a series of related regulations have been issued concerning the employ-ment and training, assessment and award, appointment and removal, promotion, demotion and transfer, punishment and appeal, resignation and dismissal of civil servants, penalties for violating civil service en-trance examination rules, and appointment and ranking of new recruits.Over 1,000 regulations have been issued, covering the major compo-nents of public human resources management, including the wages and welfare of employees in government departments and public institu-tions, human resources management in public institutions, personnel mobility management and macro-control of human resources.Legal system for human resources rights protection
In the mid-1980s China started the trial implementation of the la-bor contract system, which was officially established through the promulgation of the Labor Law of the People's Republic of China in the 1990s.The Labor Contract Law of the People's Republic of China, promulgated in 2007, and the later Regulations on the Implementa-tion of the Labor Contract Law of the People's Republic of China, have further improved the labor contract system, specified the rights and obligations of employers and employees, the rules for signing, implementing, revising, canceling or terminating labor contracts and corresponding liabilities, and, taking into account the trend toward diversified forms of employment, made provisions about how to regulate labor dispatch services and part-time employment, and other aspects.Collective consultation, together with a collective contract system, is being actively implemented in China.The Labor Law of the Peo-ple's Republic of China and the Labor Contract Law of the People's Republic of China both prescribe a collective contract system, encour-aging enterprises to adopt collective consultation and to sign collective contracts.The framework of the collective contract system with collec-tive enterprise consultation as the main body, and with regional and trade collective consultation as the supplement, has been gradually formed.In recent years, the coverage of the collective contract system has been continuously enlarged with increasing effectiveness.A col-lective labor relations coordination system characterized by equal consultation between trade union or employee representatives and en-terprise or enterprise organization representatives has been basically established.For the fair and timely settlement of labor disputes, the Law of the People's Republic of China on Mediation and Arbitration of Labor Disputes was adopted in 2007, stipulating the scope, procedures, or-ganizations, personnel and mechanism for labor dispute mediation and arbitration.In addition, a tripartite labor relations coordination mecha-nism has been established, comprising government departments, trade unions and enterprises, so as to better mediate and arbitrate labor disputes and give better legal redress for the timely and appropriate settlement of labor disputes and safeguarding the legitimate rights and interests of the relevant parties.The Regulations on Labor Security Supervision have been issued and put into effect, specifying the func-tions, implementation and legal liabilities of labor security supervision, thereby providing significant legal support for safeguarding the legiti-mate rights and interests of employees III.The Government Shoulders Human Resources Public Management and Public Service Responsibility In recent years the Chinese government has played an active role in public management of and public service for human resources, accel-erated the transformation of its functions, and improved the govern-ment accountability system, to create a favorable policy and social environment for workers to work with dignity and for talented people to excel others.Implementing an active employment policy
Long facing the difficulty that supply of labor outstrips demand, China always has the arduous task to secure stable employment and create more jobs.The Chinese government always makes employment promotion the top priority for economic and social development.To fully develop and make effective use of human resources, it imple-ments a strategy that promotes job creation and a policy that actively increases employment, and strives to help urban and rural workers en-hance their overall qualities, gradually expanding employment.The government is shouldering more responsibilities in promoting em-ployment, and government investment has been increased to provide equal employment opportunities for all.By intensifying its efforts in offering employment assistance such as occupational skill training courses, the government helps zero-employment families and people who have difficulty finding employment land jobs.A unified labor market has been set up to provide equal opportunities and services for both urban and rural workers.Relying on policy support and market orientation, the government has solved the re-employment problem for over 30 million workers laid off by state-owned enterprises, and incorporated subsistence allowances of laid-off workers into their unemployment insurance.From 2005 to 2009, over 50 million new jobs were provided in urban areas, and nearly 45 million surplus rural workers were transferred to non-agricultural sectors.At the end of 2009 the number of registered unemployed persons in urban areas was 9.21 million, with an unemployment rate of 4.3%.After the 2008 financial crisis swept the world, the Chinese gov-ernment adopted a more active employment policy to meet the chal-lenge.For enterprises in difficulties, it postponed their payment of social insurance premiums or lowered the rate of some social insurance premiums;and it adopted relevant tax reduction or exemption policies, encouraging enterprises to maintain or increase their levels of em-ployment.Moreover, the government carried out a special vocational training program, and launched a series of employment service activi-ties, striving to create more jobs through multiple channels.Focusing on college graduates, it encouraged them to find jobs at the primary level, in medium-sized and small, and non-public enterprises.In 2009 a total of 11 million urban jobs were created;the employment rate of college graduates reached 87.4%;over five million laid-off workers found new jobs;and over 1.5 million people with difficulty finding jobs got re-employed.Implementing the strategy of rejuvenating China through human resources development
Human resources are the primary factor in economic and social development, and are playing an increasingly important role in China's modernization.China has always paid great attention to human re-sources development.In the new century, China has made a major de-cision to rejuvenate the nation through human resources development, aiming to train thousands of millions of high-quality workers, hun-dreds of millions of professionals and a large group of top-notch inno-vative personnel, and set up a large-scale and rationally structured contingent of high-caliber personnel.In 2001 the Chinese government incorporated this strategy into the Five-Year Plan for National Eco-nomic and Social Development.Since 2006 it has intensified efforts in the sphere of top-level design and systematic planning of human re-sources development.It formulated the Outline of the National Plan for Medium-and Long-term Scientific and Technological Develop-ment(2006-2020), Outline of the National Plan for Medium-and Long-term Human Resources Development(2010-2020)and Outline of the National Plan for Medium-and Long-term Educational Reform and Development(2010-2020), focusing on a strategy of prioritizing human resources development in the course of economic and social development.The plans formed the country's guidelines on the overall development of human resources in urban and rural areas, among dif-ferent regions, industries and trades, and among the public and non-public sectors, ensuring that everyone has an equal opportunity in benefiting from related policies and participating in human resources development, and striving to realize a coordinated development of human resources of all types.To meet the need of establishing an innovative nation, the Chinese government has launched the National High-tech R&D Program(863 Program), National Key Basic Research Program(973 Program), Na-tional Key Technology R&D Program, National Natural Science Foundation and other national programs and foundations.It has also built the National Engineering Research Center and the National En-gineering Laboratory, implemented the Skills Training Plan of the “Hundred-Thousand-Ten Thousand Project,” Changjiang Scholars Program and some other major human resources-related programs.In addition, it has invested more in science and technology and imple-mented the Project on Upgrading the Knowledge of Technical Profes-sionals.As a result, it has trained a large number of scientific and technical professionals with high qualifications, and attracted high-caliber personnel from overseas.In 2008 the full-time R&D per-sonnel nationwide reached 1,965,400, some 2.9 times the 1991 figure.Among these there were 1,593,400 full-time scientists and engineers, 3.4 times the 1991 figure.A total of 2,146 centers for post-doctoral studies and 1,642 post-doctoral workstations were set up, and the number of post-doctoral researchers exceeded 70,000.To meet the needs of taking a new road to industrialization and op-timizing and upgrading the industrial structure, the Chinese govern-ment has implemented the National Plan for Developing Skilled Personnel, set up public training bases and national demonstration bases for the training of highly-skilled personnel, and striven to create a contingent of skilled personnel for different industries.The state has made great efforts to train people with practical skills for the country-side, implemented a plan to enhance these people's quality and put in place a project to train such people for the new countryside, and worked hard to improve the scientific and technical attainments, voca-tional skills and business capabilities of such people.It has also trained teachers, doctors and agricultural technicians to meet the urgent needs of rural development, and encouraged and guided personnel with dif-ferent qualifications to work in the countryside.Promoting equity in education
Free nine-year compulsory education is now available to all chil-dren, urban or rural, throughout the country.Since 2006 the Chinese government has reformed and adjusted the mechanism for ensuring funding for rural compulsory education;and since 2008 urban students undergoing compulsory education have been exempted from tuition and other fees.Nine-year compulsory education has been fully incor-porated into the national financial security system.China has been active in promoting balanced compulsory educa-tion.The government has prioritized rural areas, outlying poor areas and regions inhabited by ethnic-minority groups in allocating public educational resources, and implemented programs such as the National Compulsory Education in Poor Areas, Building Boarding Schools in Western China's Rural Areas, Modern Distance Education for Ele-mentary and Middle Schools in Rural China, Renovating Junior Mid-dle Schools in Central and Western China and the Plan for Special Education in Central and Western China, so as to narrow the gap be-tween urban and rural areas and between different regions and guaran-tee that disadvantaged groups have access to education.The financial aid system has been improved.The Chinese govern-ment adopts a national scholarship system, student subsidy system and national student loan system applicable to regular institutions of higher learning and vocational schools.It has provided more financial aid to ensure that students from families with financial difficulties can con-tinue their studies.By the end of 2009 some 90% of students from secondary vocational schools and 20% of university students had re-ceived financial aid on a total of 43.06 million occasions.Since 2009 students from poor rural families studying at secondary vocational schools and students studying agriculture-related subjects in such schools have been exempted from tuitions.Strengthening human resources training
The Chinese government has put cadre education and training in a prominent place.The state has drawn up and issued the Regulations on the Work of Cadre Education and Training(Trial), National Plan for Cadre Education and Training(2006-2010)and Opinions on the Im-plementation of Cadre Training Work on a Large Scale(2008-2012).With focus on the requirements of major government work and civil service posts, the government has conducted initial training, post-related training, professional training and in-service training, carried out train-ing plans geared to the needs of the posts, promoted formal schooling training, and sent cadres to temporary posts in other places, thus effec-tively developing the human resources of the civil service and pro-moting career development for civil servants.The Chinese government has carried out the Project on Upgrading the Knowledge of Technical Professionals.The state has, with specific and effective plans and step by step, conducted special training pro-grams on new theories, knowledge, technologies and methods for mid-dle-and high-level professionals in the fields important for economic, social, scientific and technological development.From 2005 to 2009, altogether three million middle-and high-level professionals partici-pated in such training programs.The government has worked hard to build a continuing education system for technical specialists, a system that sets clear levels and categories, and that brings into full play the initiative of all aspects, gradually forming a demand-driven, continuing education mechanism characterized by the combination of the gov-ernment guidance and employers' initiative, individuals' fulfillment of their duties and studying on their own initiative.In 2009 professionals involved in continuing education around China reached 30 million person/times.To promote human resources development in Western China, the Chinese government issued the Opinions on Strengthening Human Resources Development in Western China and carried out a training plan for the backbone personnel in the scientific and techno-logical field in the Xinjiang Uygur and Tibet autonomous regions, and for professionals in the Sanjiangyuan area of Qinghai Province.In 2009 China trained 2,888 backbone scientific and technical personnel and much-needed professionals of ethnic-minority groups.To meet the demands of different groups in finding employment, and geared to different stages of careers, the government has con-ducted vocational training programs, set up a vocational training sys-tem with technical schools as the mainstay and vocational training institutions as the supplement, and given full play to the roles of trade unions, Communist Youth League, women's federation, and other mass and social organizations.By the end of 2009 there were over 6,000 technical schools and employment training centers, over 20,000 pri-vately-run vocational training institutions, and over 260,000 demonstra-tion bases of science and technology for women, providing different education and training programs for women on 120 million occasions and enhancing women's capability of self-development.For junior and senior high school graduates who have failed to gain higher education, the government offers pre-job training courses to help them master some vocational skill or obtain a professional certificate before job hunting.For unemployed people, the government offers re-employment training courses that are relevant, practical and effective, so as to better prepare unemployed people for re-employment.For urban and rural workers who want to start businesses of their own and who have the qualifications, the government offers entrepreneurship training courses to enhance their abilities to start small businesses.For surplus rural workers who want to transfer to non-agricultural fields and urban areas, the government offers vocational training and carries out such special programs as the Sunshine Project, Training Plan for the Transfer of Rural Labor Force, Spark Technical Training and Yulu Plan to enhance their abilities to find employment in new sectors.Since 1994, in order to comprehensively improve the quality of workers and strengthen their capabilities in finding jobs and doing their work well, China has established a professional qualification cer-tificate system.By the end of 2009 a total of 18.433 million profes-sionals in various fields throughout the country had obtained the required qualifications, and over 100 million qualification certificates for workers of different skill levels were issued.Improving public service for human resources
The Chinese government has gradually increased its input in this area.In 2008 China's investment in human capital accounted for 10.75% of its GDP.In 2009 the state treasury spent 198.139 billion yuan on education, an increase of 84.1% over 2007;127.321 billion yuan on medical and health care, an increase of 91.66% over 2007;329.667 billion yuan on employment and social security, an increase of 43.2% over 2007;and 151.202 billion yuan on science and technology, an increase of 51.2% over 2007.The government has worked hard to improve the public employ-ment and human resources service system.It has set up integrated ser-vice institutions at the county or district level, and service centers and entities providing employment training and entrepreneurship service at the sub-district(township)and community levels, thereby forming a five-level network providing services at the province, city, county or district, sub-district(town and township)and community(administra-tive village)levels.By the end of 2009 there were over 10,000 public employment and human resources service institutions at or above the county or district level nationwide, and 37,000 service centers at the sub-district, town or township level, covering 97% of the country's sub-districts and 89% of its towns and townships.The government has improved its functions in public employment and human resources service, providing free services such as policy information, release of supply and demand information of the market, information about job vacancies, vocational guidance, employment assistance and entrepre-neurship training, shouldering responsibilities such as employment and unemployment registration and management, and providing such ser-vices as social security management, archive management, examination and certification, and specialized services.The government has made human resources service more IT-based.It has carried out the Golden Social Security Project, and set up an e-government system of labor and social security that covers the whole country and is based on networks at three levels: the central govern-ment level, provincial and municipal levels.It provides services such as policy consultation, access to information, handling business-related affairs and personal account checking by issuing social security cards, activating the 12333 public service line and SMS center, and building government service websites.Deepening the reform of the personnel system for cadres
Since the reform and opening-up policies were introduced in 1978, China has made constant efforts to deepen the reform of the personnel system for cadres.It has successively issued the Guideline on Deepen-ing the Reform of the Personnel System for Cadres and the Outline of the Plan on Deepening the Reform of the Personnel System for Cadres(2010-2020).It has adopted a system of classified management of cadres based on different characteristics of Party and government or-gans, public institutions and state-owned enterprises;and has gradually brought into being a personnel system for cadres that is fair and just, and full of vitality and under which people of ability have suitable posts, are able to display their abilities to the full, and can be promoted or demoted in their positions.The civil servant system has been implemented in Party and gov-ernment organs.A competitive mechanism, under which open selection, competition for positions and other competitive methods are used for cadre selection from appointment to promotion, has been introduced, and consequently competent cadres and personnel can stand out.From 2006 to 2009 over 528,000 people were recruited as civil servants through examinations.From 2003 to 2009 a total of 40,000 leading cadres of the Party and government were appointed through open selec-tion, and 339,000 Party and government cadres at different levels took leading posts through competition.The principle of democracy is fully applied in the selection and appointment, performance assessment, management and supervision of cadres;democratic recommendation has become a compulsory procedure during the selection and appoint-ment of cadres;public opinion surveys and democratic assessment are widely used;and cadre-related work has become more democratic.Cadre transfer work has been improved and has been institutionalized at key departments and critical posts.Centering on national strategies of economic and social development and strategies of human resources development, local plans for economic and social development, and the construction of pillar industries and major projects, leading Party and government cadres are transferred between cities, counties, provinces and central Party and government departments;and a large group of cadres have been selected from central organs and developed regions in Eastern China and sent to work in the western parts of the country.From 2003 to 2009 a total of 2.302 million cadres were transferred around China.The system regarding cadres' term of office, retirement, dismissal and resignation has been improved, making it possible for cadres to be promoted or demoted, and thus a mechanism for regular renewal and rotation of cadres has come into being.A wage system for civil servants that combines post and rank has been adopted, rationally showing the relationship between responsibilities and wages.A personnel employment system has been introduced in public in-stitutions.By means of employment contracts, the relationship between employing units and employees is clearly defined.By institutionalizing post setting, open recruitment, competition for positions, performance assessment and subsequent rewards and punishment, as well as resig-nation and dismissal, it has gradually brought into being a personnel management system for public institutions that has clearly defined rights and responsibilities, scientific classifications, flexible mecha-nisms and effective supervision.By the end of 2009 some 80% of the total staff in public institutions around China had signed employment contracts.In 2009 over 80% of all the new employees in public institu-tions in 22 provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the central government were recruited through open recruitment.Public institutions have put in place a wage system based on post and performance, as well as a payment and incentive mechanism that closely links payment and bonus to responsibilities, performance and contribution, and encourages innovation and creation.These efforts have brought into full play the enthusiasm and creativity of human resources in these institutions.Personnel system of state-owned enterprises has been improved.In line with the requirements of the modern corporate system, state-owned enterprises have started to form standard boards of directors, providing an institutional guarantee for the sustained, rapid and healthy develop-ment of these enterprises.They have established and improved systems concerning the selection and appointment, performance assessment, and incentives and supervision of managerial and administrative per-sonnel.They have put in place a wage system with regulation by the market, distribution independently by enterprises, democratic partici-pation of employees, and supervision and guidance by the government, thus promoting the development of enterprises and enhancing em-ployees' wages.As a result, the basic role of the market in allocating human resources has been brought into full play, and a mechanism of personnel selection and appointment by the market has been estab-lished.From 2003 to 2009 the number of managerial and administra-tive personnel employed by way of open recruitment and competition for positions increased from 334,000 to 521,000.Establishing a national system of honors and rewards
The Chinese government adheres to the principle of combining morale boosting with material reward, with the focus on the former, and has therefore set up a national system of honors and rewards which is being constantly improved.The state awards workers who have made major contributions to national development with the honorary titles of “National Model Worker” and “National Outstanding Worker” — the former for work-ers, farmers and managerial personnel of enterprises, and the latter for personnel of government departments and public institutions.Since 1989 the Chinese government has held a national conference once every five years to award such titles to model and outstanding workers from all walks of life.So far 14,578 people have received one of the titles.The state honors citizens and organizations making brilliant con-tributions to scientific and technological development with the Science and Technology Award.Since 2000, a total of 27,772 people have won this award, and among them 16 prominent scientists won the State Preeminent Science and Technology Award of China.China has two titles for academicians: One is Member of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, the highest title in the field of science and technology, and the other is Member of the Chinese Academy of Engineering, the highest title in the field of engineering and technology.By the end of 2009 there were 1,143 academicians of the Chinese Academy of Sci-ences and 861 academicians of the Chinese Academy of Engineering, all of whom won the title by way of assessment and selection.Since 1990, China also practices a system of special government allowances.The Chinese government has issued certificates of honor to experts, scholars, technicians and highly-skilled personnel who have made bril-liant contributions to their fields.In addition, it gives special govern-ment allowances to these people.By 2009, 158,000 people had received such allowances.In addition, the state has put in place a national sys-tem for rewarding outstanding professionals.Since 1999 a total of 200 people have won the title of “National Outstanding Professional.” Since 1995 a total of 120 people have won the state's “Grand Skill Award of China” and 2,976 have won “National Technical Expert” award.They are role models of high-skilled workers in China.The government has also established a national system to reward prominent personnel from rural areas, and 160 people have been commended under this system since 2000
IV.Bringing into Play the Fundamental Role of Market Allocation As a socialist market economy is gradually taking root in China, the Chinese government — by way of following the objective laws of human resources development — has set out to reform the cur-rent human resources system to enable the market to play its due role in the allocation of human resources and respect workers' freedom to choose jobs.The government has been making efforts to foster and develop the human resources market, gradually achiev-ing the transition from a planned to a market allocation of human resources.A market allocation mechanism for human resources has basically taken shape.Since the 1980s a multi-dimensional human resources market has gradually been formed in China as its economy, dominated by the public ownership, is growing along with diverse forms of ownership.From 1998 to 2009, the number of those working in state-owned en-tities dropped from 90.58 million to 64.20 million, a decrease from 41.9% of all urban employees to 20.6%;the number of those work-ing in limited liability companies and companies limited by shares rose from 8.94 million to 33.89 million, an increase from 4.1% of all urban employees to 10.9%;and those working in private entities or self-employed grew from 32.32 million to 97.89 million, a rise from 15% to 31.5%.Chart 5 Percentage of China's urban employees in different forms of ownership in 2009
Since the mid-1980s China has gradually been reforming its per-manent worker system established under the planned economy, known as the “unified distribution of the work force.” It gives employers the right to freely choose their workers while at the same time gives work-ers the right to freely choose their jobs, thus establishing a new mode of labor relations, formed basically through mutual choices, free con-sultation and the signing of employment contracts between employers and employees.All these factors have improved the vibrancy and effi-ciency of the human resources market.To adapt to the needs of a so-cialist market economy, the Chinese government has removed one obstacle after another in mechanisms that restrain the free flow of the work force, by reforming social security, household registration and university graduate distribution systems.These measures have con-tributed to the vibrant flow of labor force across the country's regions, industries and trades.In 2009 workers registered for employment at various human resources service agencies was 97 million, and 36 million people succeeded in landing jobs or changing their jobs, an increase of 77 million and 26 million respectively, as compared with the year 2000.In 2009 farmers who went to cities to seek employ-ment or worked in non-agricultural sectors in local areas for at least six months totaled 229.78 million, of which migrant workers working outside their localities accounted for 145.33 million and those em-ployed in secondary or tertiary industry not far from their villages reached 84.45 million.Human resources service industry has grown rapidly.Since the 1980s China has constantly expanded the scale and ele-vated the level of the human resources service industry.The service has become diversified in terms of scope and content, moving from recruitment and personnel agencies in the early period to training, la-bor dispatch, employment guidance, professional assessment, man-agement consultation and human resources service outsourcing.As a result, a relatively complete service chain in this respect has been formed.In 2008 China had more than 49,000 agencies providing human resources services, basically forming a multi-level, multi-dimensional human resources service system, which consists of govern-ment-sponsored employment and personnel service agencies, private human resources service agencies and Chinese-foreign joint ventures specializing in human resources service.Since its entry into the WTO in 2001 China has actively fulfilled its commitments, leading to a steady rise in the number of for-eign-invested human resources service agencies.In 2009 there were 160 Sino-foreign human resources service agencies in Chinese territory, compared to 30 in 2003 V.Strengthening the Protection of the Legitimate Rights and Interests of Workers
It has been the Chinese government's consistent development con-cept to respect people's right to work, stress the protection of workers' rights and interests, realize the dignity of labor and promote people's all-round development.The Chinese government has adopted a series of policies and measures to strengthen the protection of the legitimate rights and interests of workers, and is effectively promoting the sound development of human resources.Guaranteeing equal employment In recent years, the Chinese government has endeavored to strengthen the building and management of a unified and standard market of human resources, overcome the divide between urban and rural areas, between people of different identities and between differ-ent regions — which is caused by historical factors, eliminate institu-tional obstacles to the development of the human resources market, and establish an equal employment system for urban and rural workers.By improving market supervision, carrying out examination of law enforcement in the human resources market, and cleaning up and rectifying illegal acts in the market, the relevant departments of the Chinese government has effectively protected the lawful rights and interests of all market elements, including job seekers.The state makes every effort to ensure that women have equal rights to employment with men, and endeavors to remove barriers to women's equal employment.The country mobilizes various non-governmental sectors to expand the employment channels for women, and formulates and implements policies supporting women's self-employment.The positive role of women's federations at all levels is brought into full play in making known to authorities women's demands, in promoting equal employment and equal pay for equal work, and in providing rights protection services.By 2008 women workers accounted for more than 45.4% of the working population nationwide.The Chinese government is formulating an overall plan for the em-ployment of the disabled and has adopted the principle of combining centralized and decentralized employment, so as to guarantee the right to employment for the disabled.It formulates and implements policies favorable for the disabled people's employment, stipulating that every employer must hire at least one and a half persons with disabilities out of every 100 employees working in the company.Any employer with one quarter of its employees being persons of disabilities will enjoy tax preference.The government also gives advice to and helps the disabled to establish welfare enterprises of persons of disabilities, and encour-ages and supports them to explore flexible ways of employment.The China Disabled Persons' Federation at all levels protects the legitimate rights and interests of disabled persons and promotes their equal par-ticipation in social life.A total of 3,043 employment service agencies have been set up at the provincial, municipal and county levels to pro-vide special employment services for the disabled.By the end of 2009 the number of disabled employees in urban areas nationwide had reached 4.434 million, and 17.57 million disabled persons in the rural areas had found stable jobs.The state pays great attention to the protection of rural migrant workers' rights and interests.Rural migrant workers are a special group of workers that has emerged in the process of China's reform and opening-up, industrialization and urbanization.They have made great contributions to the economic and social development of the country.In 2006 the State Council established the Joint Conference System to coordinate and guide the work on rural migrant workers across the country.China has eliminated many unreasonable restric-tions on rural migrant workers' seeking jobs in cities, strengthened work safety and public health training, expanded social insurance to cover more migrant workers, established a retirement pension scheme, which ensures continuity of one's retirement insurance wherever he or she lives, and carried out such supporting programs as “Spring Warmth Action” and “Spring Breeze Action.” By the end of 2009 a total of 80.1482 million rural migrant workers had become members of trade unions, almost 80% of the migrant workers' children were receiving free compulsory education at public schools in urban areas, and the number of migrant workers covered by insurance for work-related injuries, medical insurance, basic retirement insurance for employees of enterprises in urban areas and unemployment insurance had reached 55.87 million, 43.35 million, 26.47 million and 16.43 million, respectively.Establishing a coordination mechanism for labor relations
China promotes the all-round implementation of the labor contract system.By the end of 2009, some 96.5% of China's state-owned en-terprises and enterprises of other ownership with annual sales revenue over five million yuan had signed labor contracts with their employees.The contents of labor contracts had become more standardized, and most of the labor contracts were being properly observed.China ac-tively promotes group consultations and the group contract system, so as to enhance mutual understanding and trust between employers and employees, and seek mutual benefits for both parties to the labor con-tracts.By the end of 2009, the number of effective group contracts had reached 703,000, covering more than 94 million employees.China brings into full play the function of the tripartite labor rela-tions coordination mechanism.In 2009 a total of 14,000 tripartite labor relations coordination organizations had been established in cities above the prefecture level and counties(including county-level cities and districts)of 26 provinces(autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the central government), which comprised government, trade union and enterprise representatives.Centering on major issues of labor relations, the tripartite mechanism plays an important role in promoting harmonious and stable labor relations through active com-munication, enhanced cooperation and elimination of differences.China is vigorously promoting the building of harmonious labor relations.In 2006 the government began the campaign to establish harmonious labor relations in enterprises and industrial parks.By for-mulating and implementing standards of harmonious labor relations, promoting the establishment of a coordination mechanism for labor relations and commending successful examples, China promoted har-monious and stable labor relations in enterprises and industrial parks.By the end of 2009, a total of 31 provinces, autonomous regions, and municipalities directly under the central government had engaged in building harmonious labor relations.China gives full play to the important role of trade unions.China's trade unions, which represent and safeguard workers' interests, play an important and irreplaceable role in promoting harmonious labor rela-tions.In 2009 there were 1.845 million trade unions at the grassroots level, covering 3.959 million enterprises and public institutions, and the number of trade union members nationwide had reached 226.3 mil-lion.Trade unions at various levels work actively to safeguard the rights of the workers, provide guidance and help for workers in signing labor contracts with employers according to law, represent workers in group consultations and signing group contracts with employers, or-ganize workers' participation in democratic decision making, man-agement and supervision, take part in labor dispute mediation and arbitration, provide legal services to workers and urge employers to abide by state laws and regulations.China is showing more care for enterprise employees.In recent years, the Chinese government has adopted active measures to deal with the misconduct of some enterprises in labor employment, urged them to give more care to the well-being of workers, improve their employees' working and living conditions, improve the mechanism for workers to voice their demands, establish platforms for workers to communicate with and help each other, and provide psychological and health consultation services for employees.Meanwhile, China properly guides public opinion with a view to creating a favorable social at-mosphere conducive to the building of harmonious labor relations.Settling labor disputes fairly and promptly
Settling labor disputes through mediation and arbitration is a reme-dial system with Chinese characteristics for safeguarding legitimate rights and interests of employees.To guarantee fairness and transpar-ency in dealing with labor dispute cases, arbitration commissions are composed of three parties, namely, the representatives of appropriate departments of the government, trade unions and employers.By the end of 2009, China had 33,000 arbitrators in some 4,800 arbitration organizations.The method of mediation and arbitration in settling labor disputes adheres to the principle of fairness, encourages parties in dispute to settle their disputes properly through consultations and mediation, and protects the legitimate rights and interests of parties concerned.In 2009 labor dispute arbitration organizations at various levels nation-wide handled 875,000 cases.Some 684,000 cases were accepted for arbitration, a decrease of 1.3% compared to the previous year.The cases involved 1.017 million workers, a decrease of 16.3% compared to the previous year.According to Chinese law, parties that disagree with labor dispute arbitration award may institute proceedings to the people's courts.In 2009 people's courts at various levels completed 317,000 labor dispute cases, and successfully protected the legitimate rights and interests of the parties in dispute.Enhancing labor security supervision
Law enforcement as regards labor security supervision is an im-portant way to protect the legitimate rights and interests of workers.Labor security supervision organizations are mainly responsible for publicizing laws and regulations concerning labor security, accepting and handling workers' complaints and reports, and supervising em-ployers' observance of the relevant laws.By the end of 2009, China had established 3,291 labor security supervision organizations staffed by a total of 23,000 supervisors.In recent years, China's labor security supervision organizations have launched campaigns to investigate breaches of laws and regula-tions related to labor security, and strengthened supervision on and timely handled major law-breach cases with serious social impacts.The supervision of law enforcement protects workers' rights in career introduction, labor contract signing, working hours, salary payment, social insurance and special labor protection.In 2009 China's labor security supervision organizations inspected 1.751 million employers, involving 90.298 million workers;they examined and dealt with 439,000 cases of violation of labor security laws, and ordered employ-ers who failed to sign labor contracts with their employees to sign la-bor contracts with 10.737 million employees.Since the beginning of 2009 the Chinese government has launched pilot projects of online labor security supervision and management in 60 cities so as to carry out comprehensive and dynamic supervision of employers for labor dispute prevention and timely intervention.Now, with the pilot projects working well, the new method will soon be ap-plied nationwide
VI.Actively Developing International Exchanges and Cooperation The Chinese government attaches great importance to international exchange and cooperation in human resources development, earnestly fulfilling its international obligations and continuously expanding the corresponding channels and scope so as to promote the establishment of the pattern for omni-directional and multi-level exchanges and co-operation in this regard.China values the purposes and principles for the promotion of hu-man rights and fundamental freedoms set forth in the Charter of the United Nations, committing itself to the protection of people's rights to subsistence and development.It establishes, promulgates and improves labor standards in a rational and gradual manner.The Chinese gov-ernment, in line with its own economic and social development, has ratified 25 international labor conventions, such as the Convention Concerning Equal Remuneration for Men and Women Workers for Work of Equal Value, Convention on the Minimum Age for Admission to Employment, Convention on the Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labor, and Convention Concerning Discrimination in Respect of Employment and Occupation, and has implemented these conventions.China is improving the laws and regulations concerning its human re-sources development, and promoting the ratification of conventions concerning labor, including the core ones under International Labor Organization.The Chinese government sets great store by establishing coopera-tive relations with international organizations or agencies such as the International Labor Organization(ILO), United Nations Development Program(UNDP), Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation(APEC), World Bank and Asian Development Bank(ADB)in the field of human re-sources development, actively developing bilateral or multilateral ex-change and cooperation with other countries and regions in this regard.Since China resumed its activities in the ILO in 1983, it has actively participated in international labor-related affairs, and engaged in inter-national cooperation to boost employment, improve the social security system, establish harmonious labor relations, and formulate labor laws and regulations.In 2004 and 2007, respectively, China and the ILO jointly held the China Employment Forum and Asia Employment Fo-rum.Since 1992 the Chinese government has actively participated and played an important role in cooperation with APEC concerning the development of human resources.In 2001 China hosted the APEC High-level Meeting on Human Capacity Building, and adopted the Beijing Initiative.In September 2010 the 5th APEC Ministerial Meet-ing on Human Resources Development will be held in Beijing, serving as an important platform for Asia-Pacific economies to discuss issues such as employment after the financial crisis and human resources de-velopment.China became a full member of the International Social Security Association(ISSA)in 1994, and held the 28th ISSA Interna-tional Conference in Beijing in 2004, at which the Beijing Declaration was adopted.By the end of 2009, human resources and social security departments of the Chinese government had established cooperative partnership relations with more than 80 countries and some important international organizations.The Chinese government has signed ac-cords for mutual exemption of social insurance premiums with Ger-many and the Republic of Korea to facilitate the flow of labor.China has implemented a more open human resources policy since its adoption of reform and opening up to the outside world some three decades ago.The Chinese government upholds a policy that encour-ages people to study abroad and return home to work, and gives them perfect freedom to make their own decisions.It strives to provide more opportunities for people to study abroad, and actively attracts the tal-ented people to come back, providing the necessary support for those who return to find work or start their own businesses, and creating good working and living conditions for them.From 1978 to the end of 2009, Chinese people who studied abroad totaled 1.6207 million, of whom 497,400 had returned to China upon completion of their studies.China implements the Support Plan for Overseas Students to Return and Start Businesses and the Project for Returned Overseas Students to Serve the Country, encouraging and attracting its overseas students to return home to work and start businesses.The Chinese government encourages foreigners to study in China and pays great attention to relative work.From 1978 to 2009, the number of foreign students from 190 countries and regions studying in China reached 1.69 mil-lion/times.China actively uses international education and training re-sources to cultivate talented people, initiating economic management training programs for leading officials, and overseas training programs for senior civil servants.It sent a total of 50,200 people overseas on training programs in 2009.It actively assists the United Nations in its organization of examinations in China, recommending qualified people to work in various international organizations.By the end of 2009, there were 1,002 Chinese working in different international organiza-tions.The Chinese government has been active in bringing in foreign talent, and the number of foreign experts who came to work in China reached 480,000 person/times in 2009.By the end of 2009, there were 223,000 foreigners working in China with employment permits.By the end of 2009, China had conferred “Friendship Awards” on 1,099 for-eign experts, and “International Scientific and Technological Coopera-tion Awards” on 43 foreign experts
Conclusion Along with its economic and social development, and improvement in people's living standards, China has made remarkable headway in its human resources development.But as a developing country, China is still faced with many problems such as great challenges in employ-ment, structural imbalance in human resources development, and lack of high-level, innovative people.China faces unprecedented opportu-nities and challenges in the sphere of human resources development.In the new phase of the new century, the Chinese government will put people's interests first, concentrate its care on all-round human de-velopment, and encourage and support everyone to make contributions and become accomplished in one or more fields.It will build a com-plete lifelong education system with the focus on making education more equitable and with improving educational quality as the core, so that all the people can enjoy their rights to education, make progress and apply what they have learned to practice.Bearing in mind that employment is the bedrock of the people's livelihood, the government will work harder to implement the strategy for increasing employment and a more active employment policy, encouraging people to start their own businesses to create more job opportunities.It will give priority to cultivating competent personnel, work harder to carry out the strategy of strengthening our nation through human resources development, focus on cultivating innovative scientists and engineers, train profes-sionals who are in short supply and are needed by key areas for na-tional economic and social development, and develop all types of human resources in a coordinated and all-round way.At the same time, it will persist in management innovation, break down outdated insti-tutional barriers by deepening the reform and opening wider to the outside world, and strive to create a social environment that is full of vitality, highly efficient and more open.In the future, wisdom and strength of the Chinese people will play a still better role, and there is bound to have a more solid foundation of human capability and human resources for the development and progress of China
第二篇：2009年中国的人力资源状况(白皮书)
中国的人力资源状况
（2010年9月）
中华人民共和国 国务院新闻办公室
目录
前言
一、中国人力资源的基本状况
二、人力资源开发的法律体系
三、履行政府公共管理服务职责
四、发挥市场配置的基础性作用
五、加强对劳动者权益的保护
六、积极开展国际交流与合作
结束语
前言
中国是世界上人口最多的发展中国家，13亿人口中蕴涵着极其丰富的人力资源。积极开发人力资源，充分发挥每个人的潜能和价值，促进人的全面发展，为国家现代化建设提供强大的人力和智力支撑，实现由人力资源大国向人力资源强国的转变，是中国政府始终面临的重大课题和不懈推进的重大事业。
新中国成立后特别是20世纪70年代末实行改革开放以来，中国政府坚持以人为本的理念积极贯彻“尊重劳动、尊重知识、尊重人才、尊重创造”的方针，制定了一系列解决就业问题发展教育、科技、文化、卫生、社会保障事业的政策措施，努力为实现人的全面发展创造良好的环境和条件。当前，中国就业形势保持总体稳定，国民受教育程度和健康水平显著提高，一大批国家建设急需的各类人才脱颖而出，为推动中国经济社会各项事业发展发挥了重要作用。
按照建立社会主义市场经济体制的要求，为推动科学发展，促进社会和谐，中国政府注重挥市场配置人力资源的基础性作用，大力推进经济、科技、教育等体制改革，不断深化干部人事制度改革，实施科教兴国战略、人才强国战略和积极的就业政策，建立和完善人力资源培养、吸引、使用和保障机制，加快人力资源法制建设，走出了一条适合中国国情的人力资源开发道路
一、中国人力资源的基本状况
人口众多、劳动力资源丰富是中国的基本国情。多年来，中国政府采取积极有效的政策措施大力加强人力资源的开发利用，使中国的人力资源状况发生了显著变化。人力资源规模不断扩大截至2009年底，中国总人口达到133474万人（不含香港、澳门特别行政区和台湾省），其中劳动力资源106969万人，比2000年增加11267万人；就业人员77995万人，其中，城镇就业人员31120万人，分别比2000年增加5910万人和7969万人。
国民受教育水平明显提高。中国实行教育优先的发展战略，建成了比较完善的现代国民教育体系。2000年实现了基本普及九年制义务教育和基本扫除青壮年文盲的目标。高中阶段教育普及率大幅提升，职业教育得到重点加强，高等教育进入大众化阶段。2009年，全国普通高中在校生2434.28万人，各类中等职业教育在校生2195.16万人；普通高等教育本专科在校生2144.66万人，在学研究生140.49万人。教育事业的发展，使就业人员的受教育水平显著提高。截至200年底，全国15岁以上人口平均受教育年限接近8.9年；主要劳动年龄人口平均受教育年限为9年，其中受过高等教育的比例为9.9%；新增劳动力平均受教育年限达到12.4年。
就业人员产业布局日趋优化。随着中国经济发展和产业结构调整，第一产业就业人员比例大幅下降，第三产业就业人员比例有较大提高。2009年，第一、二、三产业就业人员的比例由20年的50.0:22.5:27.5改变为38.1:27.8:34.1。
人才资源开发取得积极进展。人才是指具有一定的专业知识或专门技能，进行创造性劳动并对社会作出贡献的人，是人力资源中能力和素质较高的劳动者。中国政府制定和实施一系列重大方针政策，统筹推进党政人才、企业经营管理人才、专业技术人才、高技能人才、农村实用人和社会工作人才等各类人才队伍建设。经过多年努力，人才资源总量不断增加，人才素质明显提高，人才结构进一步优化，人才使用效能逐渐提高。截至2008年底，全国人才资源总量达到1.1亿人。
收入、卫生、社会保障等人力资源发展的保障条件逐步改善。随着社会经济持续快速发展城乡居民收入实现了稳步增长。城镇居民人均可支配收入，由1949年的不足100元人民币提高到2008年的15781元人民币；农村居民人均纯收入由1949年的44元人民币提高到2008年的476元人民币。国家大力开展公共卫生体系建设，为国民健康水平的提高提供保障，截至2009年底全国共有卫生机构28.9万个、卫生技术人员522万人、医院和卫生院床位396万张。近年来，中国政府大力推动社会保障制度建设，加快建立覆盖城乡居民的社会保障体系，努力实现人人享有基本生活保障。2009年，城镇基本养老保险参保人数达23550万人；城镇职工基本医疗保险城镇居民基本医疗保险和新型农村合作医疗保险参保人数合计超过12亿人；失业、工伤和生育保险参保人数分别达到12715万人、14896万人和10876万人。中国实行最低生活保障制度，截至2009年底，有2347.7万城镇居民和4759.3万农村居民享受了政府最低生活保障。国家在全国范围内实施有计划、有组织的大规模扶贫开发，2009年农村贫困人口减少为3597万人，贫困发生率为3.6%。
二、人力资源开发的法律体系
中国坚持依法治国方略，积极推进民主立法、科学立法，为人人享有公正平等的发展权利为科学开发人力资源提供法制保障。经过多年发展，中国逐步形成以宪法为根本依据，以劳动法公务员法为基础，以劳动合同法、就业促进法、劳动争议调解仲裁法为主体，其他单项法律和行政法规为重要组成部分的人力资源开发法律体系。
促进就业的法律制度
为实现扩大和稳定就业的发展目标，1994年中国颁布《中华人民共和国劳动法》，明确提出国家通过促进经济和社会发展，创造就业条件，扩大就业机会。2007年颁布《中华人民共和国就业促进法》，确立了国家执行“劳动者自主择业、市场调节就业、政府促进就业”的方针，建立促进就业的政府责任体系，实施有利于促进就业的产业、投资、财税政策，统筹城乡、区域和不同社会群体的就业，建立失业预警制度，完善公共就业服务制度、职业培训制度和就业援助制度这些法律的实施，有效推动了经济发展与促进就业的良性互动。
国家保障劳动者依法享有平等就业和自主择业的权利。1988年以来，颁布了《中华人民共和国残疾人保障法》、《中华人民共和国妇女权益保障法》、《中华人民共和国未成年人保护法和《女职工劳动保护规定》、《禁止使用童工规定》、《残疾人就业条例》等法律和行政法规《就业促进法》专门设立了“公平就业”章，规定劳动者就业不因民族、种族、性别、宗教信仰等不同而受歧视，并特别指出农村劳动者进城就业享有与城镇劳动者平等的劳动权利。
国家通过立法促进职业教育和职业培训。1995年以来，颁布了《中华人民共和国教育法》《中华人民共和国职业教育法》、《中华人民共和国民办教育促进法》等法律，建立了“市场引导培训、培训促进就业”的职业教育与培训机制。依托各级各类职业院校和职业培训机构，完善多形式、多层次的职业培训，形成不同层次教育相衔接、职业教育和普通教育相沟通的职业教育和职业培训制度。
国家积极规范专业技术人员的管理。1993年至今，中国颁布了《中华人民共和国教师法》《中华人民共和国执业医师法》、《中华人民共和国律师法》、《中华人民共和国注册会计师法》《中华人民共和国注册建筑师条例》等法律法规，对专业技术人员的资质条件、职业资格标准接受继续教育权利以及职业道德规范作出明确规定，规范了专业技术人员的职业准入，提高了专业服务质量。
公共人力资源管理的法律制度
1993年，中国颁布《国家公务员暂行条例》，实行公务员制度。2006年开始施行《中华人民共和国公务员法》，并陆续出台了公务员录用、培训、考核、奖励、职务任免与升降、调任处分、申诉、辞去公职、辞退、录用考试违纪违规行为处理、新录用公务员任职定级等一系列配套规章。在机关与事业单位工资福利、事业单位人事管理、人才流动管理、人力资源宏观调控等方面，国家制定规范性文件1000多件，涵盖了公共人力资源管理的主要环节。
人力资源权益保护的法律制度
20世纪80年代中期，中国开始试行劳动合同制度。到90年代，《中华人民共和国劳动法正式确立了劳动合同制度。2007年颁布的《中华人民共和国劳动合同法》及此后出台的《中华人民共和国劳动合同法实施条例》，进一步完善了劳动合同制度，明确用人单位和劳动者的权利和义务，对劳动合同的订立、履行、变更、解除或者终止以及相应的法律责任作出了明确规定，时针对劳动用工形式多样化的发展趋势，对劳务派遣和非全日制用工等行为专门进行了规范。
中国积极发挥集体协商和集体合同制度的作用。《中华人民共和国劳动法》和《中华人民共和国劳动合同法》相继对集体合同制度作出了规定。鼓励企业积极开展集体协商，签订集体合同逐步形成以企业集体协商为主体、以区域性和行业性集体协商为补充的集体合同制度框架。近年来，集体合同制度覆盖面不断扩大，实效性逐步增强，初步建立了以工会或职工代表与企业或企业组织平等协商为特征的集体劳动关系调整机制。
为公正、及时解决劳动争议，中国2007年颁布了《中华人民共和国劳动争议调解仲裁法》明确劳动争议调解和仲裁的范围、程序、组织机构、人员和处理机制。建立由政府部门、工会组织、企业组织共同协调劳动关系的三方机制，强化调解、完善仲裁、加强司法救济，及时妥善理劳动争议，维护当事人合法权益。颁布实施《劳动保障监察条例》，明确了劳动保障监察的责、实施、法律责任，为维护劳动者的合法权益提供重要法律保障。
三、履行政府公共管理服务职责
近年来，中国政府积极发挥人力资源公共管理与服务的职能作用，加快职能转变，健全政府责任体系，努力为劳动者的体面劳动和优秀人才的脱颖而出，创造良好的政策环境与社会环境
实施积极的就业政策
长期以来，中国面临着劳动力供大于求的总量性矛盾，稳定和扩大就业的任务十分繁重。中国政府始终把促进就业作为经济社会发展的优先目标，以充分开发和合理利用人力资源为出发点，实施扩大就业的发展战略和积极的就业政策，促进城乡劳动者提高整体素质，逐步实现更加充分的社会就业。不断强化各级政府在促进就业方面的责任，持续加大公共投入，促进平等就业通过加强就业援助，开展职业技能培训，帮助就业困难人员和零就业家庭实现就业。建设城乡统一的人力资源市场，为城乡劳动者提供平等的就业机会和服务。通过政策扶持和市场导向，解决了国有企业3000多万下岗职工再就业问题，实现下岗职工基本生活保障向失业保险的并轨。200年至2009年，全国城镇新增就业5000多万人，农业富余劳动力向非农产业转移就业近4500万人。2009年末，城镇登记失业人数921万人，城镇登记失业率4.3%。
2008年国际金融危机爆发后，为应对国际金融危机的冲击，中国政府实施更加积极的就业政策。实施困难企业缓缴社会保险费或降低部分社会保险费率、相关税收减免等政策，鼓励企业稳定和增加就业。实施特别职业培训计划，开展就业服务系列活动，多渠道开辟就业岗位。以高校毕业生就业为重点，大力促进高校毕业生到城乡基层、到中小企业和非公有制企业就业。2009年全年城镇新增就业超过1100万人，高校毕业生就业率达到87.4%，下岗失业人员再就业超过50万人，困难群体再就业超过150万人。
实施人才强国战略
人才是经济社会发展的第一资源，在国家现代化建设中发挥着越来越重要的作用。中国历来重视人才工作，进入新世纪作出实施人才强国战略的重大决策，努力造就数以亿计的高素质劳动者、数以千万计的专门人才和一大批拔尖创新人才，建设规模宏大、结构合理、素质较高的人才队伍。2001年，中国政府将实施人才战略纳入国民经济和社会发展五年规划。2006年以来，加强对人才资源开发的顶层设计和系统规划，先后制定《国家中长期科学和技术发展规划纲要（200—2020年）》、《国家中长期人才发展规划纲要（2010—2020年）》和《国家中长期教育改革和发展规划纲要（2010—2020年）》等三个国家中长期发展规划纲要，确立在经济社会发展中人才优先发展的战略布局，统筹城乡、区域、产业、行业和不同所有制人才资源开发，促进人人等享受人才政策和平等参与人才开发，努力实现各类人才队伍协调发展。
为适应建设创新型国家的需要，中国政府设立“863计划”、“973计划”、国家科技支撑计划、自然科学基金等国家科技计划（基金），建设国家工程研究中心和国家工程实验室，实“百千万人才工程”、“长江学者奖励计划”等重大人才项目，不断增加科技投入，实施专业术人才知识更新工程，培养造就了一支具有较大规模和较高水平的科技人才队伍，引进了一批海外高层次人才。2008年，全国研究与发展（R&D）折合全时人员达196.54万人年，其中科学家工程师159.34万人年，分别是1991年的2.9倍和3.4倍；全国设立博士后科研流动站2146个博士后科研工作站1642个，博士后研究人员达7万多人。
为适应走新型工业化道路和产业结构优化升级的需要，中国政府实施国家技能人才振兴计划，建立公共实训基地和国家高技能人才培养示范基地，努力培养造就一支门类齐全、技艺精湛的技能人才队伍。国家大力培养农村实用人才队伍，实施农村实用人才素质提升计划和新农村实用人才培训工程，全面提高农村实用人才的科技素质、职业技能和经营能力，大力培养教师、医生、农业技术人员等农村发展急需人才，鼓励和引导各类人才向农村流动。
促进教育公平
全面实现城乡免费义务教育。从2006年开始，中国政府改革并逐步调整完善了农村义务教育经费保障机制，并从2008年开始，免除城市义务教育阶段学生学杂费，将九年义务教育全面纳入国家财政保障范围。
积极推进义务教育均衡发展。坚持公共教育资源向农村地区、边远贫困地区和民族地区倾斜实施国家贫困地区义务教育工程、西部地区农村寄宿制学校建设工程、农村中小学现代远程教育工程、中西部农村初中改造工程、中西部地区特殊教育建设规划等扶持计划，努力缩小城乡和区域差距，保障困难群体接受教育。
健全国家助学体系。中国政府在普通高校、职业学校实行国家奖学金、助学金和国家助学贷款等制度，加大资助力度，保障家庭经济困难学生不因贫困而失学。2009年底，中等职业学校学生受助面达到90%，高等学校学生受助面超过20%，资助学生4306万人次。从2009年开始，国家对中等职业学校农村家庭经济困难学生和涉农专业学生免除学费。
加强人力资源培训
国家把干部教育培训摆在突出位置，制定颁布了《干部教育培训工作条例（试行）》、《200—2010年全国干部教育培训规划》和《关于2008—2012年大规模培训干部工作的实施意见》。围绕政府中心工作以及职位要求，对公务员进行初任培训、任职培训、专门业务培训和在职培训实施对口培训计划，促进学历培训，实行挂职锻炼，有效开发公务员人力资源，促进公务员职业的发展。
国家对专业技术人员实施专业技术人才知识更新工程，有计划、有步骤地在经济社会发展和科技发展的重要领域，对中高层专业技术人才，开展新理论、新知识、新技术、新方法的专项培训，2005年至2009年，共培训300万名中高级专业人才。构建分层分类的专业技术人才继续教育体系，充分发挥各方面积极性，逐步形成以需求为导向，政府主导与单位自主相结合，个人履行义务与自觉自愿学习相结合的继续教育运行机制。2009年，全国专业技术人员参加继续教育达3000万人次。为加强西部地区人才开发，中国政府制定《关于进一步加强西部地区人才队伍建设的意见》，实施新疆、西藏少数民族科技骨干和青海三江源地区专业技术人才培养计划。2009共培养2888名少数民族科技骨干人才和急需专业技术人才。
针对不同群体就业需要和劳动者职业生涯发展不同阶段需要，国家开展相应的职业培训，建立了以技工学校为骨干、职业培训机构为补充的职业培训体系，并充分发挥工会、共青团、妇联等人民团体和社会组织在职业培训等方面的作用。截至2009年底，全国共有技工学校和就业训练中心6000多所、民办职业培训机构2万多所；建立巾帼科技示范基地26万多个，为1.2亿次妇女提供各类教育培训，增强了妇女的自我发展能力。针对城乡未能继续升学的初高中毕业生实施劳动预备制培训，帮助其掌握一门职业技能或取得相应职业资格证书后再进入劳动力市场针对失业人员开展再就业培训，加强培训的针对性、实用性和有效性，提高失业人员的再就业力。针对有创业愿望并具备一定创业条件的城乡劳动者开展创业能力培训，提高其创办小企业的能力。针对拟向非农产业和城镇转移的农村富余劳动力开展职业技能培训，实施“阳光工程”“农村劳动力转移培训计划”、“星火科技培训”、“雨露计划”等专项培训，提高其转移就业能力。
为全面提高劳动者素质，增强劳动者的就业能力和工作能力，1994年以来，国家建立职业资格证书制度。截至2009年底，全国累计有1843.3万人取得各类专业技术人员职业资格证书；计有超过1亿人次取得不同等级技能人员职业资格证书。
完善人力资源公共服务
逐步增加公共投入。2008年，中国人力资本投资占GDP比例达到10.75%。2009年，中央财政用于教育支出1981.39亿元人民币，比2007年增长84.1%；用于医疗卫生支出1273.21亿元人民币，比2007年增长91.66%；用于就业和社会保障支出3296.67亿元人民币，比2007年增长43.2%；用于科学技术领域的支出1512.02亿元人民币，比2007年增长51.2%。
完善公共就业和人才服务体系。建立县区以上综合性服务机构，街道（乡、镇）社区服务口以及就业训练、创业服务等服务实体，形成了覆盖省、市、县（区）、街道（乡、镇）、社区（行政村）的五级服务网络。截至2009年底，全国共有县（区）以上公共就业和人才服务机构万多个；街道、乡、镇服务窗口共3.7万个，覆盖了97%的街道和89%的乡、镇。公共就业和人才服务职能不断增强，免费开展政策咨询、市场供求信息发布、职业介绍、职业指导、就业援助创业服务，承担就业登记、失业登记管理，提供人力资源社会保障事务代理、档案管理、考试认证、专家服务等服务项目。
提高人力资源服务的信息化程度。实施“金保工程”，初步建立以中央、省、市三级网络依托，覆盖全国的统一的劳动和社会保障电子政务系统。通过发行社会保障卡，开通12333专公益服务电话号码、短信平台和建立政府服务网站等形式，为政策咨询、信息获取、业务办理个人账户查询等提供便捷的信息化服务。
深化干部人事制度改革
改革开放以来，中国不断深化干部人事制度改革，先后颁布《深化干部人事制度改革纲要和《2010—2020年深化干部人事制度改革规划纲要》，针对党政机关、事业单位和国有企业的不同特点实行分类管理，逐步形成广纳群贤、人尽其才、能上能下、公平公正、充满活力的干部事制度。
党政机关推行公务员制度。从进入队伍到职务晋升引进竞争机制，普遍推行公开选拔、竞争上岗等竞争性选拔干部方式，促进了优秀人才脱颖而出。2006年至2009年，全国通过考试共录用公务员52.8万余人。2003年至2009年，全国共公开选拔党政领导干部4万人，各级党政机关通过竞争上岗走上领导岗位的干部共33.9万人。在干部选拔任用、考核评价、管理监督等环节充分发扬民主，民主推荐成为干部选拔任用的必经程序，民意调查、民主测评得到广泛运用，干部工作民主化程度进一步提高。干部交流力度不断加大，重点部门、关键岗位领导干部交流形成制度，围绕国家经济社会发展战略和人才战略、地方经济社会发展布局和支柱产业及重大项目的建设，加强了市、县和中央国家机关、省级党政机关之间领导干部的相互交流，从中央国家机关和东部发达地区选拔大批干部到西部地区挂职、任职。2003年至2009年，全国机关干部共交流230.2万人。完善职务任期、退休和辞退、辞职等制度，推进干部能上能下，形成正常的更新交替机制。实行国家统一的职务与级别相结合的公务员工资制度，合理体现了工作职责大小与工资高低的关系。
事业单位推行人员聘用制度。通过签订聘用合同，规范单位和职工的人事关系。建立岗位设置、公开招聘、竞争上岗、考核奖罚、辞职辞退等制度，逐步形成权责清晰、分类科学、机制灵活、监管有力的事业单位人事管理制度。截至2009年底，全国事业单位签订聘用合同的人员达到80%。2009年，22个省（区、市）事业单位新进人员中，采用公开招聘方式的占总数80%以上事业单位实行岗位绩效工资制度，初步建立了与工作人员岗位职责、工作业绩、实际贡献紧密系和鼓励创新创造的分配激励机制，调动了事业单位各类人力资源的积极性和创造性。
国有企业人事制度不断健全完善。按照现代企业制度要求，国有企业推进规范董事会的建设为企业持续快速健康发展提供了体制保障。建立健全企业经营管理人才选拔任用、业绩考核、激励监督等管理制度。建立市场机制调节、企业自主分配、职工民主参与、政府监控指导的工资分配制度，促进了企业的发展和职工工资水平的提高。注重发挥市场配置人才的基础性作用，初步建立起市场化选人用人机制，2003年至2009年通过公开招聘、竞争上岗等方式选聘的经营管理人才，从33.4万人增加到52.1万人。
建立国家荣誉和表彰奖励制度
中国政府坚持精神奖励与物质奖励相结合、以精神奖励为主的原则，建立健全国家荣誉和奖励制度。
国家设立“全国劳动模范”和“全国先进工作者”荣誉称号，授予在国家建设事业中作出重大贡献的劳动者。1989年以来，中国政府一般每五年召开一次全国劳动模范和先进工作者表彰大会，对全国各行各业涌现出的先进人物予以表彰，其中授予工人、农民、企业管理人员等“全国劳动模范”荣誉称号，授予机关事业单位工作人员“全国先进工作者”荣誉称号。截至目前共表彰“全国劳动模范”和“全国先进工作者”14578人。
国家设立科学技术奖，奖励在科学技术工作中作出突出贡献的公民、组织。自2000年以来共有27772人获得国家科学技术奖。其中有16名杰出科学家获得国家最高科学技术奖。国家设立科学院和工程院院士称号，中国科学院院士和中国工程院院士是国家在科学技术领域和工程科技领域设立的最高学术称号，截至2009年底，共评选产生中国科学院院士1143人、中国工程院士861人。自1990年起，中国政府实行政府特殊津贴制度，向作出突出贡献的专家、学者、技术人员和高技能人才颁发荣誉证书，发放政府特殊津贴。到2009年，全国共有15.8万人享政府特殊津贴。建立全国优秀专业技术人才表彰制度，自1999年以来共有200人获得“全国杰出专业技术人才”称号。建立中华技能大奖和全国技术能手评选表彰制度，自1995年以来已有120人荣获“中华技能大奖”称号，2976人荣获“全国技术能手”称号，树立了一批中国高技人才楷模人物。建立全国农村优秀人才表彰制度，自2000年以来已表彰了160名全国农村优秀人才。
四、发挥市场配置的基础性作用
随着社会主义市场经济体制在中国的逐步建立，中国政府遵循人力资源开发的客观规律，以市场配置人力资源为改革取向，尊重劳动者的自主择业权，努力培育和发展人力资源市场，逐实现人力资源从计划配置到市场配置的转变。
人力资源市场配置机制基本形成
20世纪80年代以来，以公有制为主体，多种所有制形式共同发展，逐步形成了多元化的市场用人主体。1998年至2009年，在城镇从业人员中，国有单位就业人员从9058万人下降到642万人，占城镇就业人员总数的比例从41.9%下降到20.6%；有限责任公司和股份有限公司就业人员从894万人上升到3389万人，占城镇就业人员总数的比例从4.1%上升到10.9%；私营单位和个体经济就业人员从3232万人上升到9789万人，占城镇就业人员总数的比例从15.0%提高到31.5%。
20世纪80年代中期以来，中国逐步改革计划经济体制下“统包统配”的固定工制度，落实单位用工自主权和劳动者自主择业权，以双向选择、自主协商、订立劳动合同作为确立劳动关系的基本方式，增强了人力资源市场的活力和效率。为适应建立社会主义市场经济体制的要求，中国政府改革社会保障制度、户籍制度、高校毕业生分配制度，不断破除劳动者自由流动的体制性障碍，劳动者跨地区、跨部门、跨行业流动日趋活跃。2009年，在各类人力资源服务机构登记求职的劳动者达到9700万人次，成功实现就业和转换工作的达到3600万人次，分别比2000年增加7700万人次和2600万人次。同年，全国外出就业和本地非农从业6个月以上的农村劳动力总数达到22978万人，其中外出农民工达到14533万人，就近到二、三产业实现就业的本地农民工达到8445万人。
人力资源服务业发展迅速
20世纪80年代以来，中国人力资源服务业发展规模和水平不断提升。服务领域和内容日益多元化，从最初的招聘服务、人事代理发展到包括培训服务、劳务派遣、就业指导、人才测评管理咨询和人力资源服务外包等多种业务，形成较为完善的服务产业链。2008年，全国各类人力资源服务机构达4.9万余家，基本形成由公共就业和人才服务机构、民营人力资源服务机构、外合资人力资源服务机构共同组成的多层次、多元化的人力资源市场服务体系。
中国加入世界贸易组织以来，积极履行承诺，使进入中国市场的外资人力资源服务机构逐步增加。2009年，中国境内的中外合资人才服务机构从2003年的30家增加到160家。
五、加强对劳动者权益的保护
尊重人的劳动权利，注重劳动者的权益保护，实现人的体面劳动，促进人的全面发展，是中国政府一贯坚持的发展理念。中国政府采取一系列政策措施加强劳动者权益保护，有效促进人力资源的良性发展。
保障平等就业
近年来，中国政府加强统一规范的人力资源市场的建设与管理，努力打破历史原因造成的城乡分割、身份分割和地区分割等问题，消除人力资源市场的体制性障碍，形成城乡劳动者平等就业的制度。国家有关部门通过完善市场监管体系，开展人力资源市场执法检查活动，清理整顿市场不法行为，有力维护了求职者等市场主体的合法权益。
国家高度重视并保障妇女享有与男子平等的劳动权利，努力消除阻碍妇女平等就业的壁垒动员和组织社会力量拓宽吸纳女性劳动力就业的渠道，制定和执行扶持妇女自主创业的政策。充分发挥各级妇联组织在反映妇女诉求、促进平等就业和同工同酬、提供维权服务等方面的积极作用。到2008年，全国就业人口中女性超过45.4%。
中国政府加强对残疾人就业的统筹规划，实行集中就业与分散就业相结合的方针，保障残疾人的劳动权利。制定和实施促进残疾人就业政策，规定用人单位安排残疾人就业的比例不得低于1.5%，对安置残疾人员达到职工总数25%比例的集中使用残疾人的用人单位给予税收优惠，指导和帮助残疾人组织兴办残疾人福利企业，鼓励和支持残疾人通过多种形式灵活就业。中国各级残疾人联合会努力维护残疾人合法权益，帮助残疾人平等参与社会生活。建立省、市、县级残疾人就业服务机构3043个，专门为残疾人提供就业援助服务。截至2009年底，全国城镇实际在业疾人数443.4万，农村残疾人有1757万实现了稳定就业。
国家高度重视保障农民工权益。农民工是中国改革开放和工业化、城镇化进程中出现的特殊劳动群体，为国家经济和社会发展作出了重要贡献。2006年，国务院建立农民工工作联席会议制度，统筹协调和指导全国农民工工作。取消各种针对农民进城就业的不合理限制，加强劳动安全卫生培训，扩大农民工参加社会保险覆盖面，建立养老保险接续转移制度，实施“春暖行动”“春风行动”等专项扶持计划。截至2009年底，有8014.82万农民工成为工会会员，近80%的农民工随迁子女在城镇公办中小学免费接受义务教育，全国参加工伤保险、医疗保险、城镇企业职工基本养老保险、失业保险的农民工分别达到5587万人、4335万人、2647万人和1643万人。
建立劳动关系协调机制
全面推进劳动合同制度的实施。截至2009年底，全国规模以上企业劳动合同签订率达到96.5%；劳动合同内容趋于规范，劳动合同履行情况良好。积极推进集体协商和集体合同制度，增进劳动者与用人单位之间的相互理解和信任，推动劳动关系双方互利共赢。截至2009年底，全国当期有效集体合同达到70.3万份，覆盖职工9400多万人。
充分发挥协调劳动关系三方机制的作用。2009年，全国地级以上城市和26个省份的县（市区建立了由政府、工会和企业方面代表组成的协调劳动关系三方机制，各级协调劳动关系三方机制组织共计1.4万多家。协调劳动关系三方机制围绕劳动关系的重大问题，积极沟通，加强合作消除分歧，在促进劳动关系和谐稳定中发挥了重要作用。
大力推动和谐劳动关系创建活动。2006年，中国开始开展“创建劳动关系和谐企业与工业园区”活动，通过制定、实施和谐劳动关系创建标准、推动建立劳动关系协调机制、表彰先进典等措施，促进企业和工业园区内劳动关系的和谐稳定。截至2009年底，全国31个省（区、市开展了和谐劳动关系创建活动。
积极发挥工会组织的重要作用。中国工会组织是职工利益的代表者和维护者，在创建和谐劳动关系的过程中，发挥着重要的、不可替代的作用。2009年，全国基层工会组织有184.5万个覆盖企事业机关单位395.9万家，全国工会会员总数达2.263亿人。各级工会组织积极履行维权职责，帮助指导劳动者与用人单位依法订立劳动合同，代表职工与企业开展集体协商和签订集体合同，组织职工参与本单位民主决策、民主管理和民主监督，参与劳动人事争议调解仲裁，为职工提供法律服务，督促用人单位遵守国家法律法规。
加强对企业职工的人文关怀。近年来，针对个别企业用工方面存在的问题，中国各级政府采取积极措施，督促、倡导企业切实加强对职工的人文关怀，改善职工生产生活条件，完善职工诉求表达机制，建立职工交流互助平台，开展职工心理健康咨询服务。同时积极引导社会舆论，努力形成共建和谐劳动关系的良好社会氛围。
公正及时解决劳动人事争议
通过调解仲裁解决劳动人事争议，是一项具有中国特色的权益救济和保障制度。仲裁委员会由政府行政主管部门代表、工会代表和用人单位代表三个方面组成，以保证争议案件审理过程的透明度和公正性。截至2009年底，中国共有仲裁办案机构4800多个、仲裁员3.3万人。
劳动人事调解仲裁工作遵循公正原则，鼓励协商，先行调解，及时妥善处理劳动人事争议维护当事人合法权益。2009年，全国各级劳动人事争议仲裁机构共处理劳动人事争议案件87.万件；立案受理劳动争议案件68.4万件，比上年下降1.3%；涉及劳动者101.7万人，比上年下降16.3%。依据中国法律，当事人对劳动人事争议仲裁裁决不服的，可以向人民法院提起诉讼。2009年，中国各级人民法院审结劳动争议案件31.7万件，有效维护了当事人双方合法权益。
加大劳动保障监察力度
劳动保障监察执法是维护劳动者合法权益的重要途径。劳动保障监察机构的主要职责是，积极宣传劳动保障法律法规，接受并依法查处劳动者投诉举报案件，并主动对用人单位守法情况进行监督检查。截至2009年底，中国共建立劳动保障监察机构3291个，配备专职监察员2.3万名
近年来，劳动保障监察机构开展专项检查，对违反劳动保障法律法规的突出问题进行集中整治；加强对社会反映强烈的重大违法案件的专项督办工作，及时组织查处。通过监察执法，保障了劳动者在职业介绍、劳动合同签订、工作时间、工资支付、社会保险、特殊劳动保护等方面益的落实。2009年，全国劳动保障监察机构共主动检查用人单位175.1万户，涉及劳动者9029.万人，查处各类劳动保障违法案件43.9万件，督促用人单位为1073.7万名劳动者补签劳动合同
从2009年起，中国政府在全国60个城市开展了劳动保障监察网格化、网络化管理工作试点对用人单位进行全面动态监管，实现对劳动纠纷的早期预防和及时介入。试点工作取得良好成效即将在全国范围逐步推行。
六、积极开展国际交流与合作
中国政府高度重视人力资源领域的国际交流与合作，认真履行国际义务，不断拓宽渠道和领域，推动形成全方位、多层次的交流与合作格局。
中国尊重《联合国宪章》促进人权和基本自由的宗旨与原则，致力于维护人的生存权和发权，合理确定、依法颁布和逐步完善劳动标准。中国政府结合本国经济社会发展实际，先后批准了《男女同工同酬公约》、《准予就业最低年龄公约》、《消除最恶劣形式童工公约》、《消除就业和职业歧视公约》等25个国际劳工公约，并积极实施有关公约。中国不断完善本国人力资源开发的法律法规，推动包括国际劳工组织核心劳工公约的批准进程。
中国政府高度重视与国际劳工组织、联合国开发计划署、亚太经合组织、世界银行、亚洲开发银行等国际组织或机构建立人力资源领域的合作关系，积极发展与其他国家或地区双边或多边的人力资源交流与合作。中国政府自1983年正式恢复在国际劳工组织的活动以来，积极参加国际劳工事务，在促进就业、完善社会保障制度、建立和谐劳动关系以及制定劳动法律法规方面开展了一系列国际合作。2004年和2007年，中国与国际劳工组织共同举办了“中国就业论坛”和“亚洲就业论坛”。自1992年以来，中国政府积极参与亚太经合组织人力资源开发领域的合作并发挥出重要作用。2001年，中国成功举办亚太经合组织人力资源能力建设高峰会议，通过了《北京倡议》。2010年9月，第五届亚太经合组织人力资源开发部长级会议在北京举行，为亚太各经济体讨论金融危机后的就业、人力资源开发等提供重要平台。中国1994年加入国际社会保障协会成为正式会员。2004年第28届国际社会保障协会全球大会在北京召开，通过了《北京宣言》截至2009年底，中国政府人力资源和社会保障部门已经与80多个国家和一些重要的国际组织建立了合作伙伴关系。为便利人员流动，中国先后与德国、韩国签署了社会保险互免协定。
改革开放以来，中国实施更加开放的人才政策。中国政府坚持“支持留学、鼓励回国、来去自由”的留学方针，努力拓宽留学渠道，积极吸引人才回国，为留学人员回国工作、为国服务回国创业提供支持，创造良好的生活和工作环境。从1978年至2009年底，中国各类出国留学员总数达162.07万人，留学回国人员总数达49.74万人。实施“中国留学人员回国创业启动支持计划”和“海外赤子为国服务行动计划”，鼓励和吸引海外留学人员回国工作、创业。中国视和支持外国公民来华留学，从1978年至2009年，中国接受的来华留学人员累计达到169万人次，辐射190个国家和地区。中国积极利用国际教育培训资源培养人才，实施领导干部经济管培训项目、高级公务员海外培训项目等培训计划，2009年共选派5.02万人出国（境）培训。中国积极协助联合国在华举行“国家竞争考试”，推荐优秀人才到国际组织任职，截至2009年底共有1002名中国国际职员在各类国际组织中任职。中国政府积极引进国外智力，2009年来中国大陆工作的境外专家约48万人次。2009年末持外国人就业证在中国工作的外国人共22.3万人截至2009年底，中国累计授予1099名外国专家“友谊奖”，授予43名外国专家“国际科学技术合作奖”。
结束语
伴随着中国经济社会的发展和人民生活水平的提高，中国的人力资源事业有了长足进步。但中国作为一个发展中国家，仍然面临着就业压力大、人力资源结构性矛盾突出、高层次创新型才匮乏等问题。中国人力资源发展面临的机遇和挑战前所未有。
在新的历史起点上，中国政府将坚持以人为本，关心人的全面发展，鼓励和支持人人都作贡献，人人都能成才；坚持以促进教育公平为重点，以提高教育质量为核心，构建完备的终身教育体系，让全体人民学有所教、学有所成、学有所用；坚持就业是民生之本，更好地实施扩大就的发展战略和更加积极的就业政策，促进以创业带动就业；坚持人才优先，更好地实施人才强国战略，突出培养创新型科技人才，大力开发国民经济社会发展重点领域急需紧缺专门人才，统推进各类人才建设；坚持管理创新，通过不断深化改革，扩大开放，破除不合时宜的体制机制障碍，营造充满活力、富有效率、更加开放的社会环境。
在未来的岁月里，中国人民的智慧与力量一定会更好地迸发出来，国家的发展与进步一定会有更加坚实的人力与人才资源基础。
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第三篇：中国的人力资源状况
中国的人力资源状况[全文] 目 录
前 言„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„
一、中国人力资源的基本状况„„„„„„„„„
二、人力资源开发的法律体系„„„„„„„„„
三、履行政府公共管理服务职责„„„„„„„„
四、发挥市场配置的基础性作用„„„„„„„„
五、加强对劳动者权益的保护„„„„„„„„„
六、积极开展国际交流与合作„„„„„„„„„
结束语„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„
前 言
中国是世界上人口最多的发展中国家，１３ 亿人口中蕴涵着极其丰富的人力资源。积极开发人力资源，充分发挥每个人的潜能和价值，促进人的全面发展，为国家现代化建设提供强大的人力和智力支撑，实现由人力资源大国向人力资源强国的转变，是中国政府始终面临的重大课题和不懈推进的重大事业。
新中国成立后特别是２０ 世纪７０ 年代末实行改革开放以来，中国政府坚持以人为本的理念，积极贯彻“尊重劳动、尊重知识、尊重人才、尊重创造”的方针，制定了一系列解决就业问题和发展教育、科技、文化、卫生、社会保障事业的政策措施，努力为实现人的全面发展创造良好的环境和条件。当前，中国就业形势保持总体稳定，国民受教育程度和健康水平显著提高，一大批国家建设急需的各类人才脱颖而出，为推动中国经济社会各项事业发展发挥了重要作用。
按照建立社会主义市场经济体制的要求，为推动科学发展，促进社会和谐，中国政府注重发挥市场配置人力资源的基础性作用，大力推进经济、科技、教育等体制改革，不断深化干部人事制度改革，实施科教兴国战略、人才强国战略和积极的就业政策，建立和完善人力资源培养、吸引、使用和保障机制，加快人力资源法制建设，走出了一条适合中国国情的人力资源开发道路。
一、中国人力资源的基本状况
人口众多、劳动力资源丰富是中国的基本国情。多年来，中国政府采取积极有效的政策措施，大力加强人力资源的开发利用，使中国的人力资源状况发生了显著变化。人力资源规模不断扩大。截至２００９年底，中国总人口达到１３３４７４万人（不含香港、澳门特别行政区和台湾省），其中，劳动力资源１０６９６９万人，比２０００年增加１１２６７万人；就业人员７７９９５万人，其中，城镇就业人员３１１２０万人，分别比２０００年增加５９１０万人和７９６９万人。
国民受教育水平明显提高。中国实行教育优先的发展战略，建成了比较完善的现代国民教育体系。２０００ 年实现了基本普及九年制义务教育和基本扫除青壮年文盲的目标。高中阶段教育普及率大幅提升，职业教育得到重点加强，高等教育进入大众化阶段。２００９年，全国普通高中在校生２４３４.２８万人，各类中等职业教育在校生２１９５.１６万人；普通高等教育本专科在校生２１４４.６６万人，在学研究生１４０.４９万人。教育事业的发展，使就业人员的受教育水平显著提高。截至２００９ 年底，全国１５岁以上人口平均受教育年限接近８.９ 年；主要劳动年龄人口平均受教育年限为９.５年，其中受过高等教育的比例为９.９％ ；新增劳动力平均受教育年限达到１２.４年。
就业人员产业布局日趋优化。随着中国经济发展和产业结构调整，第一产业就业人员比例大幅下降，第三产业就业人员比例有较大提高。２００９年，第一、二、三产业就业人员的比例由２０００ 年的５０.０ ∶２２.５ ∶２７.５ 改变为３８.１ ∶２７.８ ∶３４.１。
人才资源开发取得积极进展。人才是指具有一定的专业知识或专门技能，进行创造性劳动并对社会作出贡献的人，是人力资源中能力和素质较高的劳动者。中国政府制定和实施一系列重大方针政策，统筹推进党政人才、企业经营管理人才、专业技术人才、高技能人才、农村实用人才和社会工作人才等各类人才队伍建设。经过多年努力，人才资源总量不断增加，人才素质明显提高，人才结构进一步优化，人才使用效能逐渐提高。截至２００８年底，全国人才资源总量达到１.１４ 亿人。
收入、卫生、社会保障等人力资源发展的保障条件逐步改善。随着社会经济持续快速发展，城乡居民收入实现了稳步增长。城镇居民人均可支配收入，由１９４９年的不足１００元人民币提高到２００８年的１５７８１元人民币；农村居民人均纯收入由１９４９年的４４元人民币提高到２００８年的４７６１元人民币。国家大力开展公共卫生体系建设，为国民健康水平的提高提供保障，截至２００９年底，全国共有卫生机构２８.９ 万个、卫生技术人员５２２万人、医院和卫生院床位３９６万张。近年来，中国政府大力推动社会保障制度建设，加快建立覆盖城乡居民的社会保障体系，努力实现人人享有基本生活保障。２００９ 年，城镇基本养老保险参保人数达２３５５０万人；城镇职工基本医疗保险、城镇居民基本医疗保险和新型农村合作医疗保险参保人数合计超过１２亿人；失业、工伤和生育保险参保人数分别达到１２７１５万人、１４８９６万人和１０８７６万人。中国实行最低生活保障制度，截至２００９年底，有２３４７.７万城镇居民和４７５９.３ 万农村居民享受了政府最低生活保障。国家在全国范围内实施有计划、有组织的大规模扶贫开发，２００９年农村贫困人口减少为３５９７万人，贫困发生率为３.６％。
第四篇：英语求职信(附汉英对照)
求职信范文20篇，汉英对照
Letter 1 敬启者:
贵公司十二月二十五日在《北京青年报》刊登招聘广告，本人特备此函应征该职位。
我今年32岁，毕业于北京外国语大学，曾在NCC公司担 任推销员历五年之久。由于任职的公司宣布解散，只好去职。
兹随函附履历表及照片一份，希望阁下能够满意。至于月薪一事，希望能从五千港币起薪，加上佣金。倘若阁下愿意接见本人以了
解我的能力，我将随时侯教。
XX启
Dear Sir，In reply to your advertisement in Beijing Youth Daily of December 25, I respectfully offer my services for the situation.I am thirty-two years old and a graduate of Beijing Foreign Studies University, My experience in this line of work includes five years as a salesman with the NCC Company.The reason for leaving my present employment is because they're closing their office.I am enclosing my resume together with my photo, and I believe that they may be found satisfactory.As regards salary, I would be glad to start with HK$ 5,000 per month plus commission.If you would like to know more about my ability, I can be available for an interview at any time convenient to you.Letter 2 敬启者：
就以我过去的推销背景而言，本人自信可以胜任贵公司星期四在XX报招聘的职务，敬请给予考虑。
我于1993年从北京商学院毕业，曾在当代公司男装部担任 推销员两年，后在世都百货公司男装店三年，目前仍在此工作。
之所以离职，是因目前似无晋升机会，就我的工作能力和所受训练及我对工作的热情，我认为我应该获得晋升和较高待遇。
我乐于奉告阁下，如阁下要求提供查询人，以便了解我的工作情况和性格，我可以满足阁下要求。
XX启
Gentlemen，Because I believe that my sales background fits me for the position you advertised in Thursday's newspaper, I ask that you consider my qualification.I was graduated from Beijing Commercial College in July 1993.My experience has included two year as salesman in the Men's Clo-thing Department for DangDai;and three years in the Men's Shop for ShiDu, where I am still employed.My reason for wishing to make a change at this time is that there seems no opportunity for advancement in my present position, and I feel that my ability and training, as well as my interest in my work, should lead to advancement and a higher salary.I am happy to refer you upon your request people who can tell you of my work and my character.Truly yours，Letter 3 敬启者：
贵公司在七月二十三日XX报上所刊登的征聘职位正是本人 想要得到的。
一九八八年七月，我毕业于北京大学中文系。毕业后在《 中东国际》杂志担任副编辑工作，主要任务是负责校对、改写 以及撰写长篇、短篇文章。到目前为止，本人已有十年工作经验，且熟悉一切办公室例行工作。
附上我的简历表和相片，希望能令你满意。
至于我的品德，您可函询《中东国际》杂志主任史密斯先生。
XX启
Gentleman，In reply to your advertisement in the newspaper of July 23, I wish to say that I am seeking the kind of position you offer.I hold a degree in Chinese literature from Beijing University in July 1988.After graduating I worked as assistant editor in Middle East International, where my duties consisted chiefly of reading proof and rewriting, as well as composing lengthy articles and short item.I have had ten years of experience and am familiar with all phases of office routine by now.Enclosed you will find a copy of my resume and my photo.I believe they may be found satisfactory.Concerning my character I am permitted to refer to Mr.Smith, Managing editor of the magazine.Yours truly，Letter 4 敬启者：
本人正在寻求一份工作，但不是任何公司的任何工作，而只能是贵公司的一个职位。
贵公司不仅仅是商业机构，而是当 地的一个知名组织。贵公司的公正和诚实无论在雇员心中还是 在顾客心中都享有崇高美誉。
在大学主修国际贸易的四年中，我一直有一个秘密的心愿，渴盼能到贵公司工作。今年七月本人即将从大学毕业，写此信时，确实不知贵公司目前是否有空缺职位，但随函附寄的资历 却使我冒昧提出申请。
如能为贵公司效力，本人将不胜荣幸。
阁下耐心读完这篇申请，本人至为感激，并请尽速惠函示知。
XX启
Dear Sir，I am securing a job.Not any job with any company, but a particular job with your company only.Your organization is more than just a business house.It is an institution in the minds of the local public.It has a reputation for fair play and honesty with both employees and customers alike.For the past four years, while specializing in international trade at college, I have had a secret ambition to work for your organization.I will graduate in July this year.As I write this letter, I do not know that there is an opening at present in your company.I am enclosing my qualifications which prompt me to make application now.I would be very happy to work under your supervision if it is possible.Thank you very much for your kind attention.Please send me an answer at your earliest convenience.Respectfully yours，Letter 5 敬启者：
我希望能在贵公司谋得一份职业。我毕业于上海商学院，主修商业管理。
我今年刚满24岁，三个月前离开校门。求学期间还曾努力训练速记与打字，现在速记及打字各为每分钟90 字和70字。
我相信我可以担任贵公司的任何工作，如蒙录用，愿意随时接受阁下指派。
承蒙阁下的关怀和礼遇，至此表示感谢。
XX启
Dear Sir，I am looking for a job.I graduate from Shanghai Commercial College and my major is business management.I am just over twenty-four years of age and have left college about three months ago, during which time I have been striving to make myself proficient in shorthand and typewriting, and have attained a speed of ninety and seventy words a minute respectively.I believe that I can fulfill the requirements in your company.I hope you will be able to place me somewhere.Thank you in advance for your consideration and courtesy.Sincerely yours，Letter 6 敬启者：
贵公司一月十五日，在XX报刊登招聘职员（秘书、会计、职员、推销员等），现拟应征。
我现年25岁，毕业于某大学，曾在ABC公司担任助理会计员六年之久。本人离职的原因，系因该公司即将倒闭。
兹随函附履历表及照片一份，谅阁下满意。至于薪金一事，我希望月薪伍千元起，如获贵公司录用，本人可向贵公司保证，将尽力而为，令阁下满意。
xx启
Dear Sir, In response to your advertisement in the newspaper of January 15, I wish to apply for the position of(secretary, accountant, clerk, salesman, etc).I am twenty-five years old and a graduate of ____ college.My experience in this line of work includes six years as an assistant accountant with the ABC Company.The reason for leaving my present employment is because they are closing their office.I am enclosing my resume together with my photo, and believe that they may be found satisfactory.With respect to salary, I shall expect HK$5,000 a month.I assure you that if appointed, I will do my best to give your satisfaction.Very truly yours，Sample 7 敬启者：
顷阅今日XX报，得悉贵公司招聘职员，本人符合报载所列条件，拟参加应征。
我于三年前，毕业于某大学外文系，自信能符合贵公司征求精通英文之要求。
本人除在大学主修英文外，并在ABC贸易公司担任秘书工作历三年之久。
另谋他职的主要原因，是希望从较大的贸易公司如贵公司工作，能获得更多的工作经验，就以我所受的教育与经验，物来在贵公司工作会有助益。
兹随函附履历表、毕业证书及大学校长推荐函各一件，倘蒙阁下接见，将不胜感激。
xx启
Dear Sir, In reply to your advertisement in today's newspaper regarding a vacancy in your office, I wish to apply for the position of senior clerk, which you have specified.I feel confident that I can meet your special requirements indicating that the candidate must have a high command of English, for I graduated from the English Language Department of _____ University three years ago.In addition to my study of English while in the University, I have worked for three years as secretary in the firm of ABC Trading Co.Ltd.The main reason for changing my employment is to gain more experience with a superior trading company like yours.I believe that my education and experience will prove useful for work in your office.I am enclosing my personal history, certificate of graduation and letter of recommendation from the president of the University, I shall be obliged if you will give me a personal interview at your convenience.Very truly yours，Sample 8 敬启者：
本人将于今秋大学毕业，届时拟谋与进出口贸易有关的工作，我对贵公司出口部的业务范围略悉，谅阁下也许能为我安排一份工作。
我身体健康、机智，到明年七月满二十岁，目前尚在XX大学就读。在三年内已完成所修课程，将于今年七月大学毕业。虽然缺乏商业经验，但我大学成绩甚佳。兹附上资料一份，供阁下参阅。关于本人行为与能力，某大学校长赵博士将乐于奉告。本人愿随时晋见并按受面试。
xx启
Dear Sir, On my graduation form college this fall, I am desirous of securing a position that will offer me opportunity in the field of import and export trading.Knowing something of the scope and enterprise of your huge export department, I thought perhaps you would keep me in mind for a possible opening.I am strong and alert, and shall be twenty years of age in July next year.At present I am a student in the college of _____ but I shall graduate from the college this coming July, finishing the requirements in three years.I have had no business experience, but my college record has been good.A copy of my antecedents is enclosed for your reference.Dr.B.Chao, President of the college of _____ will be glad to tell you more about my character and ability, I shall be glad to call at any time for an interview.Very truly yours，Sample 9 敬启者：
顷阅分日xx报，得悉贵公司招聘秘书，本人拟应征。
我今年三十岁，自一九八零年XX大学毕业后，即在詹姆斯公司任英文秘书工作，至今已五年之久。本人精于使用各种办公室设备，自信能担任贵公司秘书工作，对以后执行工作方面，保证满意。
敬请贵公司对本人之应征，惠予考虑，并请赐函告知。
xx启
Dear Sir, In reply to your advertisement in today's newspaper I beg to offer my services as secretary with your firm.I am 30 years of age, and have had five years' experience in the line of secretary.Graduating from(the name of the)University in July 1980, I served with James & Co.as secretary until last month.Besides I am skilled in almost all kinds of office machine.So I feel confident of my ability to fill a position such as you announce as vacant and give entire satisfaction in the discharge of my duties.Trusting you will give my application kind consideration and hoping to hear favorably from you at your convenience.Yours faithfully，Sample 11 敬启者：
顷阅星期四XX报，获悉贵公司招聘人才。本人曾担任新世界产品公司销售部高级职员四年之久，自信有充分工作经验，可担任贵公司所招聘的职务。
本人自一九八一年开始，一直担任售货业务以及函件的撰写工作。在工作期间，除正式业务范围外，与各地区客户颇有来往，并利用公余时间，学会了很多有关商业问题的处理。
在新世界公司任职前，我曾在长兄会计公司担任过秘书工作。在任职期间，学会很多有关会计名词及会 计作业程序。
本人现年二十五岁，未婚，一九七四年毕业于华仁书院，我希望有机会充分利用自己工作能力，从事更大范围工作之需要，这是我急于离开现职的主要原国。本人现任职的公司老板，对我的工作雄心颇为赞许，因此，愿协助找另谋他职。
如果方便的话，我愿亲赴贵公司办公室晋见阁下，以便详细说明。
xx启
Dear Sir, Four years as a senior clerk in sales department of the New World Products Company have, I believe, given me the experience to qualify for the job you advertised in Thursday's newspaper.Since 1981 I have been responsible for all office details in the administration of sales, including writing much of the correspondence.In the course of my work, I have become familiar with the various sales territories, and have also in my spare time experience of handling business problems other than my proper sphere.The years before I was employed at the New World, I was a secretary for Long Brother, an accounting firm.There I became familiar with accounting terms and procedures．
I was graduated at Wah Yan College, in June 1974.I am twenty-five years of age and single．
I am leaving my present position because I can use my capabilities more fully in a position with wider scope.My present employer knows of my ambition and is helping me to find a new place.May I see you at your office to tell you more about myself and show you just how well I can do the work you require.Yours faithfully，Sample 12 贵公司在六月二日布里斯多报上所刊登征求的职位正是本人想要得到的。我今年十九岁，这个月即将从布里斯多高工毕业。在学三年中，我操作过各机械，曾协助学校工场机器的建立和修理工作。家父为一名司机，我时常帮他修理汽车。去年夏天，我加入一群远征队旅行三周，在西伊平地方没有修理站，我的机件严重损坏，我不得不迳行修护两门汽缸，装配一支暂用的驾驶盘。
附上我的简历表和相片，希望二者令您满意。至于我的品德您可函询布里斯多高工机械科主任，史列德先生。倘若您能考虑我的申请，并给予面试机会，我将十分感谢。
（签名）
309 Lake Ave.Bristol, Ohio
June 17, 19-
Crown Laundry Co.Bristol, Ohio
Gentlemen: In reply to your advertisement in the Bristol News of June 2, I wish to say that I am seeking the kind of position your offer.I am nineteen years old, and expect to graduate from the Bristol Technical High School this month.During three years of the course I have been working with many kinds of machinery and have helped to set up and repair the machinery in one of the school shops.My father is a chauffeur, and I helped him in repairing automobiles.Last summer I took a party of excursionists on a three weeks‘tour.While we were in West Epping, away from repair shops, my machine was badly damaged.I had to repair two cylinders and rig up a temporary steering wheel.Enclosed you will find a copy of my resume-and my photo.I believe they may be found satisfactory.Concerning my character I am permitted to refer to Mr.H.L.Sled, Head of the Mechanical section of the Bristol Technical High School.Yours truly, signature
Sample 13 敬启者：
不揣冒昧，特申函向阁下毛遂自荐，敬请原谅。
本人于一九八一年，毕业于美国工校动力班及电力装备修护班。又于一九八五年，毕业于美国工业大学工业管理系。
我刚从美国回来，拟参加贵公司工作。如蒙赐允，本人确信在阁下领导下，定能胜任愉快。
请阁下惠予为贵公司服务机会，兹随函附美国毕业证书三件及自传一份，谨供参考。
敬请尽速赐复为感。
xx启 Dear Sir, I take the liberty of writing you to apply for a position in your corporation.In 1981, graduated from the Powerman Course and Electrical Equipment Repair Course of the U.S.Engineer College and also graduated from the Management Course of Industrial College of the U.S.University in 1985.I have just returned from the United State.I would like to work in your corporation.I believe that I can perform well under your leadership．
I sincerely hope that you could give me an opportunity of first of all.Enclosed herewith are three copies of the U.S.diplomas and a copy of my resume for your reference.Your prompt reply in this matter would be greatly appreciated.Yours very truly，Sample 14 敬启者：
向阁下写信，希望填补贵公司适合的空缺，至感冒昧。我可担任行政人员工作。
我现就读大学，尚有月余毕业，主修行政管理。我所有课程，成绩均佳。倘若阁下有意审阅，当可稍后寄上。我曾在某贸易公司担任过秘书，希望找个有发展的工作。我现年25岁，诚实可靠，若阁下需要这种条件者，请惠函赐知。
承蒙阁下惠赐厚意，至为感激。xx启 Dear Sir, I take the liberty to write you in the hope that you might need someone to fill in for you.I feel that I am qualified as an administrator.I am currently a student at college, I have over a month more to complete before I graduate.My major is business administration.I have excellent grades in all my subjects.If you wish to look at these information it will be sent to you later.I have worked at a trading company as a secretary, but I hope to seek more responsible employment.I am 25 years old and very honest and dependable.If you need someone with my qualifications, please let me know.Thank you very much for your kind attention.Sincerely yours，Sample 15 敬启者：
贵公司上周在XX报刊登广告，招聘推销员一职，我拟应聘，敬请给予考虑。
我于一九八六年六月商学系毕业。此后，即在理工学院选读销售技术与大众媒介广告课程。
过去三年，在威廉福特公司担任汽车推销员、目前担任该公司销售主任，已有一年半之久。担任此职前，曾在澄士百货公司推销电器，以赚取佣金。虽然我仍年青，但自感有能力赚取实际利润。
自感目前工作发展不大，拟改变一下目前工作环境，故自信个人能力和所受训练，似应获得较佳之工作。就我目前工作，将来无多大发展前途。
倘若阁下愿意接见本人以了解我的能力，我将随时候教。
xx启
Dear Sir, I would like to ask you to consider my qualification for the position in sales that you advertised in last week's newspaper.I graduated from the College of Business in June of 1986.Since that time I have been taking night courses at Polytechnics in Sales Techniques and Mass Media Advertising.I have worked as a vehicle salesman for the Ford Co.for the past three years.At present I am their chief salesman and account for over one half of the sales.Before my present employment, I worked for the Chains Department Store as a salesclerk in the electrical appliance section.We worked mainly on commission and I was able to earn a substantial amount although I was very young.I would like to make a change now because I feel that I can go no further in my present job, I feel that my ability and my training should enable me to advance into a better and more responsible position, and it appears that this will not be forthcoming at my present position.If you would like to know more about my ability, I can be available for an interview at any time convenient to you.Sincerely yours，Sample 16 敬启者：
我意欲应征贵公司于十二月十二日在XX报刊登招聘生物化学实验室助理研究员一职。
我现年28岁，一九八六年毕业于加州大学化学专业，获理学硕士。在校期间，曾选读过很多有关化学和生物方面课程，略列如下： 普通化学
有机化学
物理化学
生物化学两年
分析化学（有机与无机）
在研究所研读时，曾担任过加州大学生物化学教授约翰·威廉斯博士的助教。在此期间，曾协助威廉斯博士从事新陈代谢中磷光循环之基础研究。如贵公司有意聘雇本人的话，当可寄上成绩单一份，供作参考。
自研究所毕业后，即受聘波士顿大学，担任副教授，仍继续从事研究工作，并在纽约发表过几篇论又。我的上司威廉·拉森博士，愿意为我提供介绍信。
我受过良好教育，且有经验，深信能够担任贵公司的研究工作，故希望贵公司尽早代为安排接见事宜。
Dear Sir, I would like to inquire about the position of laboratory research assistant in the field of biochemistry that you advertised in newspaper on December 12.I am twenty-eight years old.In 1986 I received my M.S.in Chemistry from the University of California.As a student I took many Chemistry and Biology courses a few of which are listed here: General Chemistry Organic Chemistry Physical Chemistry
Biochemistryboth organic and Inorganic
As I was a graduate student, I worked as a research assistant for Dr.John Williams, Professor of biochemistry, University of California.During this time I assisted Dr.Williams in basic research concerning the phosphates cycle in metabolism.I can supply u with a copy of the resulting paper at your request.Since my graduation I have been employed by Boston university as an assistant professor.I have continued my research in this time, and several of my papers have been published in New York.my immediate superior, Dr.William Larson, has indicated his willingness to provide my with a reference.I feel that I have sufficient education and experience in my background to fulfill the qualifications for your position.I hope that you will schedule me for an interview at your earliest convenience.Sincerely yours, xx启
Sample 17 敬启者：
我将在今年六月毕业于堪萨斯州立大学，将获得药剂学硕士学位，倘若可能，我希望在毕业前能找到一份工作。
我系香港华人，毕业于香港大学，曾获得学土学位。我早已渴望毕业后，能进入贵院工作，因为贵院是本地区最有名气的医院。如有这份荣幸，能进入贵院药房工作，我确信对我的学习和提高，将有极大裨益。
今年六月毕业前，我将完成药剂学标准课程是无疑的。同时，我亦选读了学校有关药剂学现有课程，为做一名医院药剂师准备条件。我校几位教授已答应以他们的名义，为我作保证，如约翰·哈金博士，密儿特莉.卡特博士，爱伦.舒尔兹博士。
毕业后，贵院如能为我安排工作，至为感激，若不能，亦请将我姓名记下。因为我认为贵院药剂部是本地区最有名的。
xx启
Dear Sir, I will graduate from the University of Kansas with a Masters degree in June of this year.My major is Pharmacy and I am very interested in securing a position before I graduate, if possible.I am a Hong Kong Chinese and my bachelor's degree is from Hong Kong University.I have long been hopeful of working for you after I graduate, because I consider you the finest hospital in this region, I as sure that if I have the privilege of serving in your pharmacy, I will greatly increase my education and my experience.Needless to say, I will have completed a standard course in pharmacy before I graduate in June.In addition, I have chosen to elect all the courses available at my school in Hospital Pharmacy.I did this because I have always wanted to be a hospital pharmacy.My professors, Sr.John Harkin, Dr.Mildred Carter, and Dr.Iriny Schultz have give me permission to use their names as reference.If you have a position available after I graduate, I would appreciate it.If not, please keep my name on your file, because I consider your Pharmacy the best in this region.Sincerely yours，Sample 18 Dec.28th , 2002 Human Resources Manager Lianchuang Software Company
Dear Sir，Your advertisement for a network programmer on Talents Plaza of Dec.26 interested me because your requirements closely parallel my work experience.You will find enclosed a resume of my education record and business experience together with 2 copies of references.Honestly, I have proficient computer skills and I hold College English Test Band 4 certificate and law school certificate(self-taught)
My chief reason for applying is to seek greater opportunity for advancement in a transnational, well respected corporation as yours.Mr.David Williams of your company, Nanjing Branch knows me quite well and would provide further information about my qualification and suitability later this week.Thank you for your attention and consideration.I appreciate a personal interview soon.Truly yours，Sample 19 Direction： There is a conference going to be held at your local university that you would like to attend.Write a letter to the organizer of the conference.Explain your reasons for wanting to attend.Give some information about yourself and ask for any relevant information.Dear Professor Huang，I write for information regarding the forthcoming International Education Conference to be held at your university.I am about to complete a B.A.degree in Education from Nanjing University, and have a particular interest in the teaching of work place skills and employer’s perceptions of new graduates.I plan to attend the conference and would like information about the contributory speakers, the content of their talks, and their research interests.However, although I have been living in Nanjing for the past four years I am unfamiliar with Nanjing.Therefore, if you could please also send the details of how to get to your university it would make my arrangements much easier.In addition, if you could let me have details of the accommodation that is available(bearing in mind I’m still a student)I would be more than grateful.I look forward to receiving the information and meeting you in person.Sincerely yours, Frank
Sample 20 Dear Sir/Madam, I’m a college graduate seeking opportunities to work for your company.I have received a bachelor’s degree in management science / international trade, proficient at English, both written and spoken.My academic achievement ranks among top ten of one hundred graduate students in my university, working for our student union for over three years.As a boy, I love playing football and basketball, organizing such matches both in spring and autumn, very popular with my fellow students.Moreover, I have kept doing a part-time job in a medium-sized company in Beijing for years, working in sales department.I would accept a job in either marketing or human resources management, for I not only have specialized in these two fields but also have keen interest in them.My wages are expected to range from 2000 to 4,500 yuan each month, excluding the Social Security.Of course, it is desirable that your company provide me with a small room.I hope you will give preference to my application and give me a chance to prove that I am worth more than you pay me.Best wishes!Sincerely yours Peter Chen
第五篇：《道德经》汉英对照_(Waley_译本)
《道德经》汉英对照（Waley 译本）
老子 著
Arthur Waley 英译
注：英文翻译不能完全表达古文愿意，敬请读者斟酌
一章
道，可道，非恒道。名，可名，非恒名。无名，天地之始；有名，万物之母。故常无欲，以观其妙；常有欲，以观其徼。此两者同出而异名，同谓之玄。玄之又玄，众妙之门。
The Way that can be told of is not an Unvarying Way;The names that can be named are not unvarying names.It was from the Nameless that Heaven and Earth sprang;The named is but the mother that rears the ten thousand creatures, each after its kind.Truly, ―Only he that rids himself forever of desire can see the Secret Essences‖;He that has never rid himself of desire can see only the Outcomes.These two things issued from the same mould, but nevertheless are different in name.This ―same mould‖ we can but call the Mystery, Or rather the ―Darker than any Mystery‖，The Doorway whence issued all Secret Essences.------------------二章
天下皆知美之为美，斯恶已；皆知善之为善，斯不善矣。有无相生，难易相成，长短相形，高下相盈，音声相和，前后相随，恒也。是以圣人处无为之事，行不言之教，万物作而弗始，生而弗有，为而弗恃，功成而弗居。夫唯弗居，是以不去。
It is because every one under Heaven recognizes beauty as beauty, That the idea of ugliness exists.And equally if every one recognized virtue as virtue, this would merely create fresh conceptions of wickedness.For truly, Being and Not-being grow out of one another;Difficult and easy complete one another.Long and short test one another;High and low determine one another.Pitch and mode give harmony to one another.Front and back give sequence to one another.Therefore the Sage relies on actionless activity, Carries on wordless teaching，But the myriad creatures are worked upon by him;He does not disown them.He rears them, but does not lay claim to them, Controls them, but does not lean upon them, Achieves his aim, but does not call attention to what he does;And for the very reason that he does not call attention to what he does He is not ejected from fruition of what he has done.------------------三章
不尚贤，使民不争；不贵难得之货，使民不为盗；不见可欲，使民心不乱。是以圣人之治，虚其心，实其腹；弱其志，强其骨。常使民无知无欲。使夫知不敢弗为而已，则无不治。
If we stop looking for ―persons of superior morality‖(hsien)to put in power, There will be no more jealousies among the people.If we cease to set store by products that are hard to get, There will be no more thieves.If the people never see such things as excite desire, Their hearts will remain placid and undisturbed.Therefore the Sage rules By emptying their hearts And filling their hearts? Weakening their intelligence And toughening their sinews Ever striving to make the people knowledgeless and desireless.Indeed he sees to it that if there be any who have knowledge, They dare not interfere.Yet through his actionless activity all things are duly regulated.------------------四章
道冲，而用之或不盈。渊兮，似万物之宗。挫其锐，解其纷，和其光，同其尘。湛兮，似或存。吾不知谁之子，象帝之先。
The Way is like an empty vessel That yet may be drawn from Without ever needing to be filled.It is bottomless;the very progenitor of all things in the world.In it all sharpness is blunted, All tangles untied，All glare tempered, All dust soothed.It is like a deep pool that never dries.Was it too the child of something else? We cannot tell.But as a substanceless image it existed before the Ancestor.------------------五章
天地不仁，以万物为刍狗；圣人不仁，以百姓为刍狗。天地之间，其犹橐龠乎？虚而不屈，动而愈出。多闻数穷，不如守中。
Heaven and Earth are ruthless;To them the Ten Thousand things are but as straw dogs.The Sage too is ruthless;To him the people are but as straw dogs.Yet Heaven and Earth and all that lies between Is like a bellows In that it is empty, but gives a supply that never fails.Work it, and more comes out.Whereas the force of words is soon spent.Far better is it to keep what is in the heart.------------------六章
谷神不死，是谓玄牝。玄牝之门，是谓天地根。绵绵若存，用之不勤。
The Valley Spirit never dies.It is named the Mysterious Female.And the doorway of the Mysterious Female Is the base from which Heaven and Earth sprang.It is there within us all the while;Draw upon it as you will, it never runs dry.------------------七章
天长地久。天地所以能长且久者，以其不自生，故能长生。是以圣人后其身而身先，外其身而身存。不以其无私邪？故能成其私。
Heaven is eternal, the Earth everlasting.How come they to be so? It is because they do not foster their own lives;That is why they live so long.Therefore the Sage Puts himself in the background;but is always to the fore.Remains outside;but is always there.Is it not just because he does not strive for any personal end That all his personal ends are fulfilled?
------------------八章
上善若水。水善利万物而不争，居众人之所恶，故几于道。居善地，心善渊，与善仁，言善信，政善治，事善能，动善时。夫唯不争，故无尤。
The highest good is like that of water.The goodness of is that it benefits the ten thousand creatures;Yet itself does not scramble, But is content with the places that all men disdain.It is this makes water so near to the Way.And if men think the ground the best place for building a house upon, If among thoughts they value those that are profound, If in friendship they value gentleness, In words, truth;in government, good order;In deeds, effectiveness;in actions, timelinessI have seen that they do not succeed.For that which is under heaven is like a holy vessel, dangerous to tamper with.Those that tamper with it, harm it.Those that grab at it, lose it.For among the creatures of the world some go in front, some follow;Some blow hot when others would be blowing cold.Some are feeling vigorous just when others are worn out.Therefore the Sage ―discards the absolute, the all-inclusive, the extreme‖.------------------三十章
以道佐人主者，不以兵强天下，其事好还：师之所居，荆棘生焉。大军之后，必有凶年。善有果而已，不以取强。果而勿矜，果而勿伐，果而勿骄，果而不得已，果而勿强。物壮则老，是谓不道，不道早已。
He who by Tao purposes to help a ruler of men Will oppose all conquest by force of arms;For such things are wont to rebound.Where armies are, thorn and brambles grow.The raising of a great host Is followed by a year of dearth.Therefore a good general effects his purpose and then stops;he does not take further advantage of his victory.Fulfils his purpose and does not glory in what he has done;Fulfils his purpose and does not boast of what he has done;Fulfils his purpose, but takes no pride in what he has done;Fulfils his purpose, but only as a step that could not be avoided.Fulfils his purpose, but without violence;For what has a time of vigour also has a time of decay.This is against Tao, And what is against Tao will soon perish.------------------三十一章
夫兵者，不祥之器。物或恶之，故有道者不居。君子居则贵左，用兵则贵右，故兵者非君子之器。不祥之器，不得已而用之，恬淡为上。胜而不美，而美之者，是乐杀人。夫乐杀人者，则不可得志于天下矣。吉事尚左，凶事尚右。偏将军居左，上将军居右，言以丧礼处之。杀人之众，以悲哀泣之，战胜以丧礼处之。
Fine weapons are none the less ill-omened things.(People despise them, therefore, Those in possession of the Tao do not depend on them.)That is why, among people of good birth, In peace the left-hand side is the place of honour, But in war this is reversed and the right-hand side is the place of honour.(Weapons are ill-omened things, which the superior man should not depend on.When he has no choice but to use them，The best attitude is to retain tranquil and peaceful.)The Quietist, even when he conquers, does not regard weapons as lovely things.For to think them lovely means to delight in them, And to delight in them means to delight in the slaughter of men.And he who delights in the slaughter of men Will never get what he looks for out of those that dwell under heaven.(Thus in happy events, The left-hand side is the place of honour, in grief and mourning, The right-hand is the place of honour.The lieutenant general stands on the left, While the supreme general stands on the right, Which is arranged on the rites of mourning.)A host that has slain men is received with grief and mourning;He that has conquered in battle is received with rites of mourning.------------------三十二章
道常无名。朴虽小，天下莫能臣。侯王若能守之，万物将自宾。天地相合，以降甘露，民莫之令而自均。始制有名，名亦既有，夫亦将知止。知止可以不殆。譬道之在天下，犹川谷之于江海。
Tao is eternal, but has no fame(name);The Uncarved Block, though seemingly of small account, Is greater than anything that is under heaven.If kings and barons would but possess themselves of it, The ten thousand creatures would flock to do them homage;Heaven-and-earth would conspire To send Sweet Dew, Without law or compulsion, men would dwell in harmony.Once the block is carved, there will be names, And so soon as there are names, Know that it is time to stop.Only by knowing when it is time to stop can danger be avoided.To Tao all under heaven will come As streams and torrents flow into a great river or sea.------------------三十三章
知人者智，自知者明；胜人者有力，自胜者强。知足者富。强行者有志。不失其所者久。死而不亡者寿。
To understand others is to have knowledge;To understand oneself is to be illumined.To conquer others needs strength;To conquer oneself is harder still.To be content with what one has is to be rich.He that works through violence may get his way;But only what stays in its place Can endure.When one dies one is not lost, there is no other longevity.------------------三十四章
大道泛兮，其可左右。万物恃之而生而不辞，功成而不名有。衣养万物而不为主，可名于小；万物归焉而不为主，可名为大。以其终不自为大，故能成其大。
Great Tao is like a boat that drifts;It can go this way;it can go that.The ten thousand creatures owe their existence to it and it does not disown them;Yet having produced them, it does not take possession of them.Makes no claim to be master over them,(And asks for nothing from them.)Therefore it may be called the Lowly.The ten thousand creatures obey it, Though they know not that they have a master;Therefore it is called the Great.So too the Sage just because he never at any time makes a show of greatness In fact achieves greatness.------------------三十五章
执大象，天下往。往而不害，安平泰。乐与饵，过客止。道之出口，淡乎其无味，视之不足见，听之不足闻，用之不足既。
He who holding the Great From goes about his work in the empire Can go about his, yet do no harm.All is peace, quietness and security.Sound of music, smell of good dishes Will make the passing stranger pause.How difference the words that Tao gives forth!
So thin, so flavourless!If one looks for Tao, there is nothing solid to see;If one listens for it, there is nothing loud enough to hear.Yet if one uses it, it is inexhaustible.------------------三十六章
将欲歙之，必故张之；将欲弱之，必故强之；将欲废之，必故兴之；将欲取之，必故与之。是谓微明。柔弱胜刚强。鱼不可脱于渊，国之利器不可以示人。
What is in the end to be shrunk Must first be stretched.Whatever is to be weakened Must begin by being made strong.What is to be overthrown Must begin by being set up.He who would be a taker Must begin as a giver.This is called ―dimming‖ one's light.It is thus that the soft overcomes the hard And the weak, the strong.“It is best to leave the fish down in his pool;Best to leave the State's sharpest weapons wherenone can see them.‖
------------------三十七章
道恒无名，侯王若能守之，万物将自化。化而欲作，吾将镇之以无名之朴。无名之朴，夫亦将不欲。不欲以静，天地将自正。
Tao never does;Yet through it all things are done.If the barons and kings would but possess themselves of it, The ten thousand creatures would at once be transformed.And if having been transformed they should desire to act, We must restrain them by the blankness of the Unnamed.The blankness of the Unnamed Brings dispassion;To be dispassionate is to be still.And so, of itself, the whole empire will be at rest.------------------三十八章
上德不德，是以有德；下德不失德，是以无德。上德无为而无以为；下德无为而有以为。上仁为之而无以为；上义为之而有以为。上礼为之而莫之应，则攘臂而扔之。故失道而后德，失德而后仁，失仁而后义，失义而后礼。夫礼者，忠信之薄，而乱之首。前识者，道之华，而愚之始。是以大丈夫居其厚，不居其薄；居其实，不居其华。故去彼取此。
The man of highest ―power‖ does not reveal himself as a possessor of ―power‖;Therefore he keeps his ―power‖.The man of inferior ―power‖ cannot rid it of the appearance of ―power‖;Therefore he is in truth without ―power‖.The man of highest ―power‖ neither acts nor is there any who so regards him;The man of inferior ―power‖ both acts and is so regarded.The man of highest humanity, though he acts, is not regarded;Whereas a man of even the highest morality both acts and is so regarded;While even he who is best versed in ritual not merely acts, But if people fail to respond Then he will pull up his sleeves and advance upon them.That is why it is said: “After Tao was lost, then came the 'power';After the 'power' was lost, then came human kindness.‖ After human kindness was lost, then came morality, After morality was lost, then came ritual.Now ritual is the mere husk of loyalty and promise-keeping And is indeed the first step towards brawling.‖ Foreknowledge may be the ―flower of doctrine‖, But it is the beginning of folly.Therefore the full-grown man takes his stand upon the solid substance And not upon the mere husk, Upon the fruit and not upon the flower.Truly, ―he reject that and takes this‖.------------------三十九章
昔之得一者：天得一以清；地得一以宁；神得一以灵；谷得一以盈；侯得一以为天下正。其致之。天无以清，将恐裂；地无以宁，将恐废；神无以灵，将恐歇；谷无以盈，将恐竭；侯王无以贵高，将恐蹶。故贵以贱为本，高以下为基。是以侯王自谓「孤」、「寡」、「不谷」。此非以贱为本耶？非乎？故致数誉无誉。是故不欲禄禄如玉。珞珞如石。
As for the things that from of old have understood the Whole —
The sky through such understanding remains limpid, Earth remains steady, The spirits keep their holiness, The abyss is replenished, The ten thousand creatures bear their kind, Barons and princes direct their people.It is the Whole that causes it.Were it not so limpid, the sky would soon get torn, Were is not for steadiness, the earth would soon tip over, Were it not for their holiness, the spirit would soon wither away.Were it not for this replenishment, the abyss would soon go dry, Were it not that ten thousand creatures can bear their kind, They would soon become extinct.Were the barons and princes no longer directors of their people And for that reason honoured and exalted, they would soon be overthrown.Truly ― the humble is the stem upon which the mighty grows, The low is the foundation upon which the high is laid.‖
That is why barons and princes refer to themselves as ―The Orphan‖, “The Needy‖, ―The Ill-provided.Is this not indeed a case of might rooting itself upon humility? True indeed are the sayings: “Enumerate the parts of a carriage, And you still have not explained what a carriage is,‖
And They did not want themselves to tinkle like jade-bells, While others resounded like stone chimes‖.------------------四十章
反者道之动；弱者道之用。天下万物生于有，有生于无。
In Tao the only motion is returning;The only useful quality, weakness.For though all creatures under heaven are the products of Being, Being itself is the product of Not-being.------------------四十一章
上士闻道，勤而行之；中士闻道，若存若亡；下士闻道，大笑之。不笑不足以为道。故建言有之：「明道若昧，进道若退，夷道若类，上德若谷，大白若辱，广德若不足，建德若偷；质真若渝，大方无隅，大器晚成，大音希声；大象无形。」道隐无名，夫唯道，善始且善成。
When the man of highest capacities hears Tao He does his best to put it into practice.When the man of middling capacity hears Tao He is in two minds about it.When the man of low capacity hears Tao He laughs loudly at it.If he did not laugh, it would not be worth the name of Tao.Therefore the proverb has it: “The way out into the light often looks dark, The way that goes ahead often looks as if it went back.‖
The way that is least hilly often looks as if it went up and down, The ―power‖ that is really loftiest looks like an abyss, What is sheerest white looks blurred.The ―power‖ that is most sufficing looks inadequate, The ―power‖ that stands firmest looks flimsy.What is in its natural, pure state looks faded;The largest square has no corners, The greatest vessel takes the longest to finish, Great music has the faintest notes, The Great From is without shape.For Tao is hidden and nameless.Yet Tao alone supports all things and brings them to fulfillment.------------------四十二章
道生一，一生二，二生三，三生万物。万物负阴而抱阳，冲气以为和。人之所恶，唯「孤」、「寡」、「不谷」。而王公以为称。故，物或损之而益，或益之而损。人之所教，我亦教之：「强梁者不得其死」，吾将以为教父。
Tao gave birth to the One;The One gave birth successively to two things, Three things, up to ten thousand.These ten thousand creatures cannot turn their backs to the shade Without having the sun on their bellies, And it is on this blending of the breaths that their harmony depends.To be orphaned, needy, ill-provided is what men most hate;Yet princes and dukes style themselves so.Truly, ―things are often increased by seeking to diminish them And diminished by seeking to increase them.‖
The maxims that others use in their teaching I too will use in mine.Show me a man of violence that came to a good end, And I will take him for my teacher.------------------四十三章
天下之至柔，驰骋天下之至坚。无有入无间。吾是以知无为之有益。不言之教，无为之益，天下希及之。
What is of all things most yielding Can overwhelm that which is of all things most hard.Being substanceless it can enter even where is no space;That is how I know the value of action that is actionless.But that there can be teaching without words, Value in action that is actionless, Few indeed can understand.------------------四十四章
名与身孰亲？身与货孰多？得与亡孰病？是故，甚爱必大费，多藏必厚亡。知足不辱，知止不殆，可以长久。
Fame or one's own self, which matters to one most? One's own self or things bought, which should count most? In the getting or the losing, which is worse? Hence he who grudges expense pays dearest in the end;He who has hoarded most will suffer the heaviest loss.Be content with what you have and are, and no one can despoil you;Who stops in time nothing can harm.He is forever safe and secure.------------------四十五章
大成若缺，其用不弊。大盈若冲，其用不穷。大直若屈，大巧若拙，大辩若讷。躁胜寒，静胜热，清静为天下正。
What is most perfect seems to have something missing;Yet its use is unimpaired.What is most full seems empty;Yet its use will never fail.What is most straight seems crooked;The greatest skill seems like clumsiness, The greatest eloquence like stuttering.Movement overcomes cold;But staying still overcomes heat.So he by his limpid calm Puts right everything under heaven.------------------四十六章
天下有道，却走马以粪。天下无道，戎马生于郊。祸莫大于不知足；咎莫大于欲得。故，知足之足，常足矣。
When there is Tao in the empire The galloping steeds are turned back to fertilize the ground by their droppings.When there is not Tao in the empire War horses will be reared even on the sacred mounds below the city walls.(No lure is greater than to possess what others want,)No disaster greater than not to be content with what one has, No presage of evil greater than men should be wanting to get more.Truly: “He who has once known the contentment that comes simply through being content, Will never again be otherwise than contented‖.------------------四十七章
不出户，知天下；不窥牖，见天道。其出弥远，其知弥少。是以圣人不行而知，不见而明，不为而成。
Without leaving his door He knows everything under heaven.Without looking out of his window He knows all the ways of heaven.For the further one travels The less one knows.Therefore the Sage arrives without going，Sees all without looking, Does nothing, yet achieves everything.------------------四十八章
为学日益，为道日损。损之又损，以至于无为。无为而无不为。取天下常以无事。及其有事，不足以取天下。
Learning consists in adding to one's stock day by day;The practice of Tao consists in ―subtracting day by day, Subtracting and yet again subtracting Till one has reached inactivity.But by this very inactivity Everything can be activated.‖
Those who of old won the adherence of all who live under heaven All did so not interfering.Had they interfered, They would never have won this adherence.------------------四十九章
圣人常无心，以百姓心为心。善者吾善之，不善者吾亦善之，得善。信者吾信之，不信者吾亦信之，得信。圣人在天下，歙歙焉，为天下浑其心，圣人皆孩之。
The Sage has no heart of his own;He uses the heart of the people as his heart.Of the good man I approve, But of the bad I also approve, And thus he gets goodness.The truthful man I believe, but the liar I also believe, And thus he gets truthfulness.The Sage, in the dealings with the world, seems like one dazed with fright;For the world's sake be dulls his wits.The Hundred Families all the time strain their eyes and ears, The Sage all the time sees and hears no more than an infant sees and hears.------------------五十章
出生入死。生之徒，十有三；死之徒，十有三；人之生，动之死地，亦十有三。夫何故？以其生之厚。盖闻善摄生者，陵行不遇兕虎，入军不被甲兵。兕无所投其角，虎无所措其爪，兵无所容其刃。夫何故？以其无死地。
He who aims at life achieves death.If the ―companions of life‖ are thirteen，So likewise are the ―companions of death‖ thirteen.How is it that the ―death-stops‖ in man's life And activity are also thirteen? It is because men feed life too grossly.It is said that he who has a true hold on life, When he walks on land does not meet tigers or wild buffaloes;In battle he is not touched by weapons of war.Indeed, A buffalo that attacked him would find nothing for its horns to butt, A tiger would find nothing for its claws to tear, A weapon would find no place for its point to enter in.And why? Because such men have no ―death-spot‖ in them.------------------五十一章
道生之，德畜之，物形之，器成之。是以万物莫不尊道而贵德。道之尊，德之贵，夫莫之命而常自然。故道生之，德畜之。长之育之，亭之毒之，养之覆之，生而不有，为而不恃，长而不宰，是谓玄德。
Tao gave them birth;The ―power‖ of Tao reared them, Shaped them according to their kinds, Perfected them, giving to each its strength.Therefore Of the ten thousand things there is not one that does not worship Tao And do homage to its ―power‖.No mandate ever went forth that accorded to Tao the right to be worshipped, Nor to its ―power‖ the right to be worshipped, Nor to its ―power‖ the right to receive homage.It was always and of itself so.Therefore as Tao bore them and the ―power‖ of Tao reared them, Made them grow, fostered them, Harboured them, Brewed for them，So you must rear them, but not lay claim to them, Control them, but never lean upon them, Be chief among them, but not manage them.This is called the mysterious power.‖
------------------五十二章
天下有始，以为天下母。既得其母，以知其子。既知其子，复守其母，没身不殆。塞其兑，闭其门，终身不勤。启其兑，济其事，终身不救。见小曰明，守柔曰强。用其光，复归其明，无遗身殃，是为习常。
That which was the beginning of all things under heaven We may speak of as the ―mother‖ of all things.He who apprehends the mother Thereby knows the sons.And he who has known the sons, Will hold all the tighter to the mother, And to the end of his days suffer no harm;“Block the passages, shut the doors, And till the end your strength shall not fail.Open up the passages, increase your doings, And till your last day no help shall come to you.‖ As good sight means seeing what is very small So strength means holding on to what is weak.He who having used the outer-light can return to the innerlight Is thereby preserved from all harm.This is called resorting to the always-so.------------------五十三章
使我介然有知，行于大道，唯施是畏。大道甚夷，而民好径。朝甚除，田甚芜，仓甚虚，服文采，带利剑，厌饮食，财货有馀，是为盗竽。非道也哉！
He who has the least scrap of sense, Once he has got started on the great highway has nothing to fear So long as he avoids turnings.For great highways are safe and easy.But men love by-paths.So long as Court is in order They are content to let their fields run to weed
And their granaries stand empty.They wear patterns and embroideries, Carry sharp swords, glut themselves with drink and food, Have more possessions than they can use.These are the riotous ways of brigandage;they are not the Highway.------------------五十四章
善建者不拔，善抱者不脱，子孙以祭祀不辍。修之于身，其德乃真；修之于家，其德乃馀；修之于乡，其德乃长；修之于邦，其德乃丰；修之于天下，其德乃普。故以身观身，以家观家，以乡观乡，以邦观邦，以天下观天下。吾何以知天下然哉？以此。
What Tao plants cannot be plucked, What Tao clasps, cannot slip.By its virtue alone can one generation after another carry on the ancestrial sacrifice.Apply it to yourself and by its power you will be freed from dross.Apply it to your household and your household shall thereby have abundance.Apply it to the village, and the village will be made secure.Apply it to the kingdom, and the kingdom shall thereby be made to flourish.Apply it to an empire, and the empire shall thereby be extended.Therefore just as through oneself one may contemplate Oneself, So through the household one may contemplate the Household, And through the village, one may contemplate the Village, And through the kingdom, one may contemplate the Kingdom, And through the empire, one may contemplate the Empire.How do I know that the empire is so? By this.------------------五十五章
含「德」之厚，比于赤子。毒虫不螫，猛兽不据，攫鸟不搏。骨弱筋柔而握固。未知牝牡之合而□作，精之至也。终日号而不嗄，和之至也。知和曰常，知常曰明，益生曰祥，心使气曰强。物壮则老，谓之不道，不道早已。
The impunity of things fraught with the ―power‖ May be likened to that of an infant.Poisonous insects do not sting it, Nor fierce beasts seize it, Nor clawing birds maul it, Its bones are soft, its sinews weak;but its grip is strong.Not yet to have known the union of male and female, But to be completely formed, Means that the vital force is at its height;To be able to scream all day without getting hoarse Means that the harmony is at its perfection.To understand such harmony is to understand the always so.To understand the always-so is to be illumined.But to fill life to the brim is to invite omens.If the heart makes calls upon the life-breath, rigidity follows.Whatever has a time of vigour also has a time of decay.Such things are against Tao, And whatever is against Tao is soon destroyed.------------------五十六章
知者不言，言者不知。塞其兑，闭其门，挫其锐，解其纷，和其光，同其尘，是谓玄同。故不可得而亲，不可得而疏；不可得而利，不可得而害；不可得而贵，不可得而贱。故为天下贵。
Those who know do not speak;Those who speak do not know.Black the passages, Shut the doors, Let all sharpness be blunted, All tangles untied, All glare tempered.All dust smoothed.This is called the mysterious leveling.He who has achieved it cannot either be drawn into friendship or repelled, Cannot be benefited, cannot be harmed, Cannot either be raised or humbled, And for that very reason is highest of all creatures under heaven.------------------五十七章
以正治国，以奇用兵，以无事取天下。吾何以知其然哉？以此：天下多忌讳，而民弥贫；人多利器，国家滋昏；人多伎巧，奇物滋起；法令滋彰，盗贼多有。故圣人云：「我无为，而民自化；我好静，而民自正；我无事，而民自富；我无欲，而民自朴。」
“Kingdoms can only be governed if rules are kept;29
Battles can only be won if rules are broken.‖
But the adherence of all under heaven can only be won by letting-alone.How do I know that it is so? By this.The more prohibitions there are, the more ritual avoidances, The poorer the people will be.The more ―sharp weapons‖ there are，The more benighted will the whole land grow.The more cunning craftsmen there are, The more pernicious contrivances will be invented.The more laws are promulgated, The more thieves and bandits there will be.Therefore a sage has said: So long as I ―do nothing‖ the people will of themselves be transformed.So long as I love quietude, the people will of themselves go straight.So long as I act only by inactivity the people will of themselves become prosperous.So long as I have no wants The people will of themselves return to the ―state of the Uncarved Block‖.------------------五十八章
其政闷闷，其民淳淳；其政察察，其民缺缺。祸兮，福之所倚，福兮，祸之所伏。孰知其极？其无正。正复为奇，善复为妖。人之迷，其日固久！是以圣人方而不割，廉而不刿，直而不肆，光而不耀。
When the ruler looks repressed the people will be happy and satisfied;When the rule looks lively and self-assured the people will be carping and discontented.“It is upon bad fortune that good fortune leans, upon good fortune that bad fortune rests.‖ But though few know it, there is a bourn where there is neither right nor wrong;In a realm where every straight is doubled by a crooked, And every good by an ill, surely mankind has gone long enough astray? Therefore the Sage Squares without cutting, Shapes the corners without iopping, Straightens without stretching, Gives forth light without shining.------------------五十九章
治人、事天，莫若啬。夫为啬，是谓早服，早服谓之重积德。重积德则无不克。无不克则莫 30
知其极。莫知其极，可以有国。有国之母，可以长久。是谓深根固柢，长生久视之道。
You cannot rule men nor serve heaven unless you have laid up a store;This ―laying up a store‖ means quickly absorbing，And ―quickly absorbing‖ means doubling one's garnered ―power‖.Double your garnered power and it acquires a strength that nothing can overcome.If there is nothing it cannot overcome, it know no bounds, And only what knows no bounds is huge enough to keep a whole kingdom in its grasp.But only he who having the kingdom goes to the Mother can keep it long.This is called the art of making the roots strike deep by fencing the trunk, Of making life long by fixed staring.------------------六十章
治大国若烹小鲜。以道莅天下，其鬼不神。非其鬼不神，其神不伤人。非其神不伤人，圣人亦不伤人。夫两不相伤，故德交归焉。
Ruling a large kingdom is indeed like cooking small fish.They who by Tao all that is under heaven Did not let an evil spirit within them display its powers.Nay, it was not only that the evil spirit did not display its powers;Neither was the Sage's good spirit used to the hurt of other men.Nor was it only that his good spirit was not used to harm other men, The Sage himself was thus saved from harm.And so, each being saved from harm, Their ―powers‖ could converge towards a common end.------------------六十一章
大国者下流，天下之牝，天下之交。牝常以静胜牡，以静为下。故大国以下小国，则取小国；小国以下大国，则取大国。故或下以取，或下而取。大国不过欲兼畜人，小国不过欲入事人。夫两者各得所欲，大者宜为下。
A large kingdom must be like the low ground towards which all streams flows down.It must be a point towards which all things under heaven converge.Its part must be that of the female in its dealings with all things under heaven.The female by quiescence conquers the male;by quiescence gets underneath.If a large kingdom can in the same way succeed in getting underneath a small kingdom
Then it will win the adherence of the small kingdom;And it is because small kingdoms are by nature in this way underneath large kingdoms That they win the adherence of large kingdoms.The one must get underneath in order to do it;The other is underneath and therefore does it.(What large countries really need is more inhabitants;And what small countries need is some place Where their surplus inhabitants can go and get employment.)Thus each gets what it needs.That is why I say the large kingdom must ―get underneath‖.------------------六十二章
道者，万物之奥。善人之宝，不善人之所保。美言可以市尊，美行可以加人。人之不善，何弃之有？故立天子，置三公，虽有拱璧以先驷马，不如坐进此道。古之所以贵此道者何？不曰：求以得，有罪以免邪？故为天下贵。
Tao in the Universe is like the south-west corner in the house.It is the treasure of the good man, The support of the bad.There is a traffic in speakers of fine words;Persons of grave demeanour are accepted as gifts;Even the bad let slip no opportunity to acquire them.Therefore on the day of an Emperor's enthronement Or at the installation of the three officers of State Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc of jade, Better were it, as can be done without moving from one's seat, To send this Tao.For what did the ancients say of this Tao, How did they prize it? Did they not say of those that have it “Pursuing, they shall catch;pursued, they shall escape?‖
They thought it, indeed, most precious of all things under heaven.------------------六十三章
为无为，事无事，味无味。大小多少，报怨以德。图难于其易；为大于其细。天下难事，必作于易；天下大事，必作于细。是以圣人终不为大，故能成其大。夫轻诺必寡信，多易必多难。是以圣人犹难之，故终无难矣。
It acts without action, does without doing, Finds flavour in what is flavourless, Can make the small great and the few many, “Requites injuries with good deeds, Deals with the hard while it is still easy, With the great while it is still small.‖
In the governance of empire everything difficult Must be dealt with while it is still easy, Everything great must be dealt with while it is still small.Therefore the Sage never has to deal with the great;And so achieves greatness.But again ―Light assent inspires little confidence And 'many easies' means many a hard.‖
Therefore the Sage knows too how to make the easy difficult, And by doing so avoid all difficulties!
------------------六十四章
其安易持；其未兆易谋；其脆易泮；其微易散。为之于未有，治之于未乱。合抱之木，生于毫末；九层之台，起于累土；千里之行，始于足下。为者败之；持者失之。是以，圣人无为，故无败；无持，故无失。民之从事，常于几成而败之。慎终如始，则无败事。是以圣人欲不欲，不贵难得之货，学不学，复众人之所过。以辅万物自然而不敢为。
“What stays still is easy to hold;Before there has been an omen it is easy to lay plans.What is tender is easily torn, What is minute is easy to scatter.‖
Deal with things in their state of not-yet-being, Put them in order before they have got into confusion.For ―the tree big as a man's embrace began as a tiny sprout, The tower nine storeys high began with a heap of earth, The journey of a thousand leagues began with what was under the feet‖.He who acts, harms;he who grabs, lets slip.Therefore the Sage does not act, and so does not harm;Does not grab, and so does not let slip.Whereas the people of the world, at their tasks, Constantly spoil things when within an ace of completing them.“Heed the end no less than the beginning,‖ And your work will not be spoiled.Therefore the Sage wants only things that are unwanted, Sets no store by products difficult to get，33
And so teaches things untaught, Turning all men back to the things they have left behind, That the ten thousand creatures may be restored to their Self-so.This he does;but dare not act.------------------六十五章
古之善为道者，非以明民，将以愚之。民之难治，以其智多。故以智治国，国之贼；不以智治国，国之福。知此两者亦稽式。常知稽式，是谓玄德。玄德深矣，远矣，与物反矣，然后乃至大顺。
In the days of old those who practiced Tao with success did not, By means of it, Enlighten the people, but on the contrary sought to make them ignorant.The more knowledge people have, the harder they are to rule.Those who seek to rule by giving knowledge Are like bandits preying on the land.Those who rule without giving knowledge Bring a stock of good fortune to the land.To have understood the difference between these who things Is to have a test and standard To be always able to apply this test and standard Is called the mysterious ―power‖, so deep-penetrating, So far-reaching, That can follow things back —
All the way back to the Great Concordance.------------------六十六章
江海所以能为百谷王者，以其善下之，故能为百谷王。是以圣人欲上民，必以言下之；欲先民，必以身后之。是以圣人居上而民不重，居前而民不害。是以天下乐推而不厌。以其不争，故天下莫能与之争。
How did the great rivers and seas get their kingship Over the hundred lesser streams? Through the merit of being lower than they;That was how they got their kingship.Therefore the Sage In order to be above the people
Must speak as though he were lower than the people.In order to guide them He must put himself behind them.Only thus can the Sage be on top and the people not be crushed by his weight.Only thus can he guide, and the people not be led into harm Indeed in this way everything under heaven will into harm be pushed by him And will not find his guidance irk-some.This he does by not striving;And because he does not strive, none can contend with him.------------------六十七章
天下皆谓我道大，似不肖。夫唯大，故似不肖。若肖，久矣其细也夫！我有三宝，持而保之：一曰慈，二曰俭，三曰不敢为天下先。慈，故能勇；俭，故能广；不敢为天下先，故能成器长。今舍慈且勇，舍俭且广，舍后且先，死矣。夫慈，以战则胜，以守则固。天将救之，以慈卫之。
Every one under heaven says that our Way is greatly like folly.But it is just because it is great, that it seems like folly.As for things that do not seem like folly — well, There can be no question about their smallness!Here are my three treasures.Guard and keep them!The first is pity;The second, frugality;The third, refusal to be ―foremost of all things under heaven.‖ For only he that pities is truly able to be brave;Only he that is frugal is able to be profuse.Only he that refuse to be foremost of all things Is truly able to become chief of all Ministers.At present your bravery is not based on pity, Nor your profusion on frugality, Nor your vanguard on your rear;and this is death.But pity cannot fight without conquering or guard without.But pity cannot fight without conquering or guard without saving.Heaven arms with pity those whom it would not see destroyed.------------------六十八章
善为士者，不武。善战者，不怒。善胜敌者，不与。善用人者，为之下。是谓不争之德，是 35
谓用人之力，是谓配天，古之极。
The best charioteers do not rush ahead;The best fighters do not make displays of wrath.The greatest conqueror wins without joining issue;The best user of men acts as though he were their inferior.This is called the power that comes of not contending, Is called the capacity to use men, The secret of being mated to heaven, to what was of old.------------------六十九章
用兵有言：「吾不敢为主，而为客；不敢进寸，而退尺。」是谓行无行，攘无臂，执无兵，乃无敌矣。祸莫大于轻敌，轻敌几丧吾宝。故抗兵相若，哀者胜矣。
The strategists have the sayings: “When you doubt your ability to meet the enemy's attack, Take the offensive yourself‖
And ―If you doubt your ability to advance an inch, then retreat a foot‖.This latter is what we call to march without moving, To roll the sleeve, but present no bare arm, The hand that seems to hold, yet had no weapon in it, A host that can confront, yet presents no battle-front.Now the greatest of all calamities is to attack and find no enemy.I can have no enemy only at the price of losing my treasure.Therefore when armies are raised And issues joined it is he who does not delight in war that wins.------------------七十章
吾言甚易知，甚易行。天下莫能知，莫能行。言有宗，事有君。夫唯无知，是以不我知。知我者希，则我者贵。是以圣人被褐而怀玉。
My words are very easy to understand And very easy to put into practice.Yet no one under heaven understands them;No one puts them into practice.But my words have an ancestry, my deeds have a lord;And it is precisely because men do not understand this That they are unable to understand me.36
Few then understand me, but it is upon this very fact my value depends.It is indeed in this sense that ―the Sage wears hair-cloth on top, But carries jade under neath his dress.‖
------------------七十一章
知不知，上，不知不知，病。圣人不病，以其病病，是以不病。
“To know when one does not know is best.To think one knows when one does not know is a dire disease.Only he who recognizes this disease as a disease Can cure himself of the disease.The Sage's way of curing disease Also consists in making people recognize their diseases as diseases And thus ceasing to be diseased.------------------七十二章
民不畏威，则大威至。无狎其所居，无厌其所生。夫唯不厌，是以不厌。是以圣人自知不自见，自爱不自贵。故去彼取此。
Never mind if the people are not intimidated by your authority.A Mightier Authority will deal with them in the end.Do not narrow their dwelling or harass their lives;And for the very reason that you do not harass them, They will cease to turn from you.Therefore the Sage knows himself but does not show himself.Knows his own value, but does not put himself on high.Truly, he rejects that but takes this‖.------------------七十三章
勇于敢，则杀，勇于不敢，则活。此两者，或利或害。天之所恶，孰知其故？天之道，不争而善胜，不言而善应，不召而自来，姗然而善谋。天网恢恢，疏而不失。
He whose braveness lies in daring, slays.He whose braveness lies in not daring , gives life.37
Of these two, either may be profitable or unprofitable.But ―Heaven hates what it hates;None can know the reason why‖.Wherefore the Sage, too, disallows it.For it is the way of Heaven not to strive but none the less to conquer, Not to speak, but none the less to get an answer, Not to beckon;yet things come to it of themselves.Heaven is like one who says little, yet none the less has laid his plans.Heaven's net is wide;Coarse are the meshes, yet nothing slips through.------------------七十四章
民不畏死，奈何以死惧之？若使民常畏死，而为奇者，吾得执而杀之，孰敢？常有司杀者杀。夫代司杀者杀，是谓代大匠斫。夫代大匠斫者，希有不伤其手矣。
The people are not frightened of death.What then is the use of trying to intimidate them with the death-penalty?
And even supposing people were generally frightened of death And did not regard it as an everyday thing, Which of us would dare to seize them and slay them?
There is the Lord of Slaughter always ready for this task, And to do it in his stead is like thrusting oneself into the master-carpenter's place And doing his chipping for him.Now ―he who tries to do the master-carpenter's chipping for him is lucky if he does not cut his hand.‖
------------------七十五章
民之饥，以其上食税之多，是以饥。民之不治，以其上之有为，是以不治。民之轻死，以其上求生之厚，是以轻死。夫唯无以生为者，是贤于贵生。
The people starve because those above them eat too much tax-grain.That is the only reason why they starve.The people are difficult to keep in order because those above them interfere.That is the only reason why they are so difficult to keep in order.38
The people attach no importance to death, Because those above them are too grossly absorbed in the pursuit of life.That is why they attach no importance to death.And indeed, in that their hearts are so little set on life They are superior to these who set store by life.------------------七十六章
人之生也柔弱，其死也坚强。草木之生也柔脆，其死也枯槁。故坚强者死之徒，柔弱者生之徒。是以兵强则灭，木强则折，强大居下，柔弱居上。
When he is born, man is soft and weak;In death he becomes stiff and hard.The ten thousand creatures and all plants And trees while they are alive are supple and soft, But when and dead they become brittle and dry.Truly, what is stiff and hard is a ―companion of death‖;What is soft and weak is a ―companion of life‖.Therefore ―the weapon that is too hard will be broken, The tree that has the hardest wood will be cut down‖.Truly, the hard and mighty are cast down;The soft and weak set on high.------------------七十七章
天之道，其犹张弓欤？高者抑之，下者举之，有馀者损之，不足者补之。天之道，损有馀而补不足。人之道，则不然：损不足以奉有馀。孰能有馀以奉天下？唯有道者。是以圣人为而不恃，功成而不居，其不欲见贤。
Heaven's way is like the bending of a bow.When a bow is bent the top comes down and the bottom-end comes up.So too does Heaven take away from those who have too much, And give to those that have not enough.But if it is Heaven's way to take from those who have too much And give to those who have not enough, this is far from being man's way.He takes away from those that have not-enough in order To make offering to those who already have too much.One there is and one only, so rich that he the possessor of Tao.39
(If, then, the Sage ―though he controls does not lean, And when he has achieved his aim does not linger‖，It is because he does not wish to reveal himself as better than others.)
------------------七十八章
天下莫柔弱于水，而攻坚强者莫之能胜，以其无以易之。弱之胜强，柔之胜刚，天下莫不知，莫能行。是以圣人云：「受国之垢，是谓社稷主；受国不祥，是为天下王。」正言若反。
Nothing under heaven is softer or more yielding than water;But when it attacks things hard and resistant there is not one of them that can prevail.For they can find no way of altering it.That the yielding conquers the resistant And the soft conquers the hard is a fact known by all men, Yet utilized by none.Yet it is in reference to this that the Sage said “Only he who has accepted the dirt of the country can be lord of its soil shrines;Only he who takes upon himself the evils of the country Can become a king among those what dwell under heaven.‖ Straight words seem crooked.------------------七十九章
和大怨，必有馀怨，安可以为善？是以圣人执左契而不责于人。有德司契，无德司彻。天道无亲，恒与善人。
(To requite injuries with good deeds.)To allay the main discontent, But only in a manner that will certainly produce further discontents can hardly be called successful.Therefore the Sage behaves like the holder of the left-hand tally, Who stays where he is and does not go round making claims on people.For he who has the ―power‖ of Tao is the Grand Almoner;He who has not the ―power‖ is the Grand Perquisitor.“It is Heaven's way, without distinction of persons, To keep the good perpetually supplied.‖
------------------八十章
小邦寡民。使有什伯之器而不用；使民重死而不远徙。虽有舟舆，无所乘之；虽有甲兵，无所陈之。使民复结绳而用之。甘其食，美其服，安其居，乐其俗。邻邦相望，鸡犬之声相闻，民至老死，不相往来。
Given a small country with few inhabitants, He could bring it about that through There should be among the people contrivances requiring ten times, A hundred times less labour, they would not use them.He could bring it about that the people would be ready To lay down their lives and lay them down again in defence of their homes, Tather than emigrate.There might still be boats and carriage, But no one would go in them;There might still be weapons of war, But no one would drill with them.He could bring it about that “The people should have no use for any from of writing save knotted ropes, Should be contented with their food, pleased with their clothing, Satisfied with their homes, Should take pleasure in their rustic tasks.The next place might be so near at hand That one could one could hear the cocks crowing in it, the dogs barking;But the people would grow old and die without ever having been there‖.------------------八十一章
信言不美，美言不信。善者不辩，辩者不善。知者不博，博者不知。圣人不积，既以为人己愈有，既以与人己愈多。天之道，利而不害；圣人之道，为而不争。
True words are not fine-sounding;Fine-sounding words are not true.The good man does not prove by argument;The he who proves by argument is not good.True wisdom is different from much learning;Much learning means little wisdom.The Sage has no need to hoard;When his own last scrap has been used up on behalf of others，41
Lo, he has more than before!When his own last scrap has been used up in giving to other, Lo, his stock is even greater than before!For heaven's way is to sharpen without cutting, And the Sage's way is to act without striving.------------------42
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