机器人化多功能护理床研究与探讨外文文献翻译@中英文翻译@外文翻译要点

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机器人化多功能护理床研究与探讨

翻译* 摘要:人性化设计是现代设计的一个重要理念,它强调在设计产品时从人体工学、生态学、美学等角度达到完美,体现了科技以人为本的思想。该护理床的设计正是基于这种理念,它不仅能够实现抬背、抬大腿,曲小腿和调整坐姿的功能,并将设计通过Pro/E三维实体建模软件进行模拟和仿真分析,进一步指导和验证设计的合理性。为满足目前日益提高的家庭护理要求,将机器人的多轴协调控制技术应用于护理床的控制,研制了一种机器人化的多功能护理床.该护理床通过各个床面板之间的协调运动,采用单动或联动方式来实现各种位姿,并通过语音或键盘来控制进行多位姿的运动.护理床的控制系统由主控制模块和辅助控制模块两部分构成.其中主控制模块采用单片机进行控制,这样既可降低成本,又可保证护理床操作的灵活性和可靠性;辅助控制模块包括语音识别和语音回放两部分的功能.实际使用效果证明了所研制的护理床的实用性和有效性.本文由医学论文网与您分享!

关键词:机器人化护理床;控制系统;语音识剐;单片机

概述:目前,无论是发达国家还是发展中国家,均面临着越来越严重的人口老龄化问题。老年人由于各项生理机能退化,健康状况普遍不佳,消耗大量医疗资源,增加了医院的负担。世界各国均在积极探求一种新的健康服务模式,提供更高质量、更可靠、更容易被接受且成本低廉的健康服务。因此现代远程监护系统的构建,具有很好的发展前景。本文研究了一种面向社区的基于机器人化多功能式智能健康监护系统,用来对病人的生理参数进行连续、长时间、自动、实时检测,并经分析、处理后实现多类别自动报警、自动记录,而且可以通过网络远程监护便于医护人员及时发现病人的病情变化,随时采取必要的护理与急救措施。随着社会经济的迅速发展,人民生活水平不断提高,人口寿命不断延长,城市人口正逐步进入老龄化.人口的老龄化对社会医疗服务体系提出了更高的要求,建立以社区为核心的健康监控和疾病预控信息化系统具有很大的现实意义”.老年人由于年龄偏大,肌体的活性逐渐降低,对疾病的抵抗力日益减弱,且疾病多以慢性病为主.对于慢性病人和瘫痪病人而言,除了配合药物和针剂的治疗外,物理方式的护理也必不可少.正确、适当的护理可以大大增强患者肌体的活性,减少并发症的产生.对于许多慢性病患者而言,通过定期服药、适当监护和正确护理,可以不必长期住院.特别是对那些因种种原因不可能长期住院治疗的患者、老年人和残疾人士而言,配置必要的护理设备和用具尤为重要“。.相比于普通人,慢性病人、瘫痪病人和残疾人士的卧床时间更长、更久,因此开发一种舒适、护理功能齐全、性价比高的护理床,将具有广阔的市场前景”?.目前,我国正着力于建设社区公共卫生服务体系,如果将所开发的护理床与社区、医院医疗体系连接,实现医疗、护理、健康监护、医疗救治、疾病预控等的一体化,可大大减轻医院的压力,更为合理、有效地利用现有的医院资源”4’.同时,通过医院、社区两种信息化系统的建立和连接,可大大提升应对突发性公共卫生事件的响应速度和处理能力.有鉴于此,笔者针对社会医疗服务的发展现状及现实需求,提出了一种基于机器人多轴协调控制技术和语音识别技术的多功能护理床的概念,成功研制了一种机器人化的多功能护理床,并在此基础上研制了一套基于该护理床的社医监护系统.本文主要对该机器人化护理床的结构及控制系统进行探讨.

机器人化护理床的结构

在进行机器人化护理床的结构设计时,主要考虑了以下儿点:(1)护理床应能够实现护理所需的各种体位的位姿要求;(2)各个活动床面板的摆动角度应符合医疗护理要求并兼顾人体的舒适性;(3)护理床床体的可靠性、稳定性和安全性要符合医疗护理要求;(4)床体的尺寸有一定的空间范围限制;(5)要考虑护理床在房间内移动的简易性以及医护辅助装置(如吊液架和书饭桌)在护理床f:的可安装性.所研制的机器人化护理床的床面结构如图1所示,它实现J,对护理床的7个基本体位的位姿的要求,即平躺、抬背、屈/伸腿、抬腿、左/右翻身、坐起以及解便,7个面板是相互独立的.通过各个床面板之间的协调运动,采用单动或联动方式来实现护理床所需的各种体位的位姿.护理床的位姿与相应的床面板动作如表l所示.各床面板的摆动角度如下:背板(坐姿),o。一十750;背板(左/右翻身),o。~+65。;左/右臀部板,O。~+75。;大腿板,o。一+35。;小腿板,一55 o~+35。;解便盖板,O。一+90。.2机器人化护理床的控制系统为了便于对护理床进行智能控制,及时r解护理床的当前工作状态,律护理床的脒身上需安置必要数目的传感器”?.通过分析传感器传输来的数据,控制系统可以实时了解、控制床面板的运动状态,防止不同机构问的相互干涉或是驱动电机超调对床体、人员造成的不必要伤害.在床体位姿的控制方式方面,除了采用通行的键盘按钮输入方式外,为了方便体弱病残者,还增加了语音输人方式+操作者可以通过语音命令来操纵护理床.由于普通类型的控制芯片难以完成语音命令的识别,冈此将整个护理床的控制系统分为两大模块.第一部分为主控制模块,它由一个单片机控制系统构成,用于实现护理床系统的主体控制,包括接受键盘/语音控制命令和传感器位置信号的输入,以及输出电机控制信号等,第二部分为辅助控制模块,主要进行语音的识别和回放,它将来自操作者的语音控制命令转化为电信号,然后经过编码转换,输送至主控制模块,同时接受来自主控制模块的电信号,将这些控制指令转换为操作者可以理解的声音信号.2.1 机器人化护理床的主控制模块主控制模块在运行时接收来自键盘/语音识别电路的电信号,经过分析处理,将控制信号通过外部接口输送到语音回放电路,由语音回放电路将电信号转化为声音信号,提供语音反馈信号,使操作者随时了解护理床的实时动态;另一方面,主控制模块根据各种信号命令,控制不同的电机运转,从而实现用户所期掣的护理床的功能?.主控制模块主要包括以下各子功能:

(1)键盘输入.键盘输入是护理床输入控制命令的途径之一,由键盘输人的命令通过编码由串口发送到主控制板.(2)直流电机的动作控制.护理床在接受键盘或是语音输入信号后,便开始进行相应的动作以达到护理床的预期功能.这要求主控制板能对安装在护理床上的8个直流电机进行正反两方向的动作控制.(3)传感器信号输入.位置传感器将电机的运动位置信息反馈给控制系统,控制系统根据反馈回的信号判断电机的当前运动位置和状态,然后调用对应的程序进行运动控制2.1.1键盘控制电路键盘控制板上除r配备供使用者操作的按键外,还配置了显示护理床工作状态的指示灯.考虑到键盘与主控制板的通信以及主控制板cPu的L/0口资源有限,因此键盘由一块独立的单片机来处理各种任务.由于键盘(2×6)和指示灯(8个)需要占用不少的I/0口资源,而所选用的89c2051单片机只有15个L/0口,L/o u资源非常有限,因此在单片机的L/0口资源分配上,键盘控制板的单片机与主控制板之间采用串口通信;同时,考虑到控制电缆有一定的长度,为增加通信的可靠性,采用了232电平通信,因此在硬件电路上加了一块MAx232芯片进行电平转换.2.1.2直流电机的控制护理床的护理功能是通过直流电机来执行的,电机驱动护理床来完成各项动作,以实现各种护理位姿,包括:(1)背板上抬/下降;(2)左/右翻身板上升/下降;(3)大腿板上升/下降;(4)小腿板上升/下降;(5)便盆盖板开/合;(6)平躺体位实现/复位;(7)坐姿体位实现/复位;(8)抬腿体位实现/复位;(9)屈腿体位实现/复位.以上各位姿之间的转换与完成均通过8个直流电机的正反转来实现,因此主控制板必须能够在接收命令后对8个直流电机进行上E反转控制,即能够实现电机的正反向通电控制在护理床的硬件电路设计中,对每一个电机都采用了两个双刀双掷的继电器进行通断电控制.2.2机器人化护理床的辅助控制模块2.2.1语音识别语音控制技术是现有各种控制方式中的一种高级控制方式,它具有控制方式自然、方便,亲和力好,适用范围广的特点.将语音控制技术引入到护理床的控制之中,将极大地方便使用者,尤其对于那些丧失或部分丧失活动、自理能力的患者而占,语音控制可以帮助他们增强自信心,减轻对他人的依赖,增添生活的勇气和信心.针对护理床使用者的语音输入命令的特点,研究中使用了美闰sENsORY公司的RSc364语音芯片作为识别核心芯片。Rsc364芯片通过训练而实现语音识别功能,系统的L/o电平是TrL电平,可以方便地与其他系统进行数据传输.Rsc364芯片内部集成了语音识别所需的多种功能,它能够完成语音识别过程中的反混叠低通滤波、采样/保持、A/D转换以及语音记录等功能Rsc364芯片在完成语音识别任务后,将语音控制信号通过芯片输出到单片机的Po和P1口.根据PSc364的输出状态,在主控制板与语音识别芯片之间采用一片74Lsl48 j簖片来扩展中断口,语音命令输入74Lsl48芯片的8个输入脚,连接Pl口;Rsc364的扩展[J Gs接单片机的中断口P3.2;单片机的P1.o~P1.3口与语音识别芯片的Po.4~Po.7口相连接.当有语音命令输入时,P1口巾的一个输出低电平,Gs u输“i的低电平启动单片机外部中断,在进行单片机的中断处理时从P1.0~P1.3口中读人数据.2.2.2语音回放主控制电路收到命令后,在控制电机运转的同时,也向语音回放子模块输j【j语音控制信号.由辅助控制模块向当前使用者提供语音反馈.语音同放子模块的主要作用是:护理床接收到用户命令后,在护理床实现功能动作以前播放相应动作的语音信息,提醒用户做好身体准备,这种人性化设计进一步提高了护理床的亲和力.语音回放采用IsD4003_08芯片作为主芯片.IsI)4003系列的工作屯压为3 V,单片录放时间为4—8min”?.芯片采用cMOs技术,内含振荡器、防混淆滤波器、平滑滤波器、音频放大器、自动静噪及高密度多电平闪烁存贮阵列,操作命令町通过串行通信接口输人.3机器人化护理床的控制程序机器人化护理床的控制方式是一种简化的机器人控制方式.系统启动后首先检测护理床的位姿,然后检测各个开关的状态,再检测各个按键的状态,如果其中一个按键按下,则护理床作相应的动作,并启动语音回放程序告知操作者,通过语音识别进行的控制也是一样,如果语音识别模块识别了,操作者的一个指令,同样地,护理床完成相应的动作.4结束语将机器人的多轴协调控制技术应用于护理床,可对机器人化护理床进行有效控制.所研制的机器人化护理床的如图4所示,它可以实现多个位姿的调整,并采用语音命令和键盘输入两种方式进行控制,简便灵活.另外,由于主控制模块采用r单片机,使得系统操作灵活可靠,成本低廉.目前所研制的护理床已在一些医院试用,反映良好.今后的研究将集巾在如何进一步提高系统的协调性和灵活性,拓展系统的人性化功能等方面. Robotic nanomanipulation multi-function nursing bed research and discussion

Translators XingKai Abstract: the humanized design is an important concept of modern design, it emphasizes ergonomics design products, ecology, from the Angle of aesthetics, which reflects the perfect technological people-oriented thoughts.The nursing bed was based on the idea of design, it can not only realize carried back, lift the thigh, curved crus and adjust sitting position, and the function of Pro/E design through 3d entity modeling software is simulated and simulation analysis, further guidance and the rationality of design are verified.To meet the increasing family care requirements, the robot multiaxial coordinated control technique is applied in nursing bed control, developed a multi-function nursing bed robotic nanomanipulation.This nursing bed through each bed panel coordination between the movement, the single move or linkage ways various pose, and through the voice or keyboard to control the movement than appearance.Nursing bed control system consists of master control module and auxiliary control module two parts.One master control module adopts single-chip microcomputer control, such already can reduce costs, and can ensure the nursing bed operation flexibility and reliability;Auxiliary control modules including speech recognition and voice playback two parts function.The actual usage proved was developed nursing bed.This paper the practicability and effectiveness of medical paper nets to share with you!

Keywords: robotic nanomanipulation nursing bed;Control system;General cut;speech microcontroller

Summary: now, both developed and developing countries are facing more and more serious, the problem of aging population.Old people, the physiological function of degradation due to poor health, generally consumed a lot of medical resources, increase the burden of the hospital.In every country in the world in active seek out new health service mode, providing higher quality, more reliable and more accepting and cheap health services.So the construction of modern distance monitoring system, has the very good prospects for development.This paper studies a community-oriented robotic nanomanipulation based health intelligent monitoring system of multi-function type, of the patient's physiological parameters for continuous, long time, automatic, real-time detection, and the analysis and processing after realizing automatic alarm, automatic recording category, but also through the network for remote monitoring medical personnel the timely discovery of the patient's progress, at any time to take necessary care and emergency measures.With the rapid development of social economy, the people's standard of living rises ceaselessly, life expectancy rising longevity, the city's population is gradually entered the aging.the aging of the population of social medical service system put forward higher request, and establish a community as the core of the health monitoring and disease precontrol information system has great practical significance“ o.elderly because the older, the body gradually reduce active, resistant to disease has decreased, and the disease in chronic diseases primarily.For chronic disease and paralytic character, besides the treatment with drugs and injection, physical way outside the nursing also indispensable.Correct and appropriate care can greatly enhance the patient's body activity, reduce the complications of chronic disease.For many produced by regular medication, concerned, proper monitoring and correct nursing, need not hospitalizations.Especially for those who long for a variety of reasons impossible patients treated in hospital, the elderly and disabled people speaking, equipped with necessary nursing equipment and utensils particularly important ”compared to ordinary people.,chronic patients, people with disabilities and bed time longer and more long, thus developing a kind of comfortable, nursing complete function, cost-effective nursing bed, will has a broad market prospect“?.At present, China is building community on public health service system, if will development of the nursing bed and community, hospital medical system connection, realize medical and nursing, health care, medical treatment, disease precontrol etc integration, can reduce the pressure, more reasonable hospital, effectively use existing resources for hospital ”4“.Meanwhile, through the hospitals, communities two information system establishment and connections, can greatly improve our public health event to deal with emergency response speed and processing power.In view of this, according to our social medical service development present situation and the practical demand, put forward a kind of multiaxial coordination based robot control techniques and speech recognition technology is muti_function nursing bed concept, successfully developed the robotic nanomanipulation multi-function nursing bed, and on this basis developed based on the nursing bed medical monitoring system of the club.This article mainly discusses the structure of robotic nanomanipulation nursing bed and control system are discussed.robotic nanomanipulation nursing bed structure In the structure of robotic nanomanipulation nursing bed design, the main consideration the following son points:(1)the nursing bed should be able to realize all kinds of the nursing posture pose requirements;(2)all activities of bed panel swing Angle should comply with the medical care for both human comfort;and(3)nursing bed body reliability, stability and safety requirements, should accord with medical care(4)bed body size have certain space limits;(5)to consider nursing bed in the room moving simplicity and medical auxiliary devices(such as hanging liquid frame and book table)in nursing bed f: can be installed sex.The developed machine humanizing nursing bed bed surface structure as shown in figure 1 shows, to realize J, seven basic nursing bed of posture pose demands that a flat, carry back, flexor/leg, SLR, left/right turn, sitting up and solution then, seven panel is independent of each other.Through the coordination between each bed panel, using single movement or movement way to realize nursing bed linkage of all kinds of pose of posture pose.Nursing bed with corresponding bed panel action such as table l.3.Each bed panel swing Angle is as follows: the backplane(posture), o.10 750;Backplane(left/right emancipated), o.~ + 65.;The left/right hip board, O.~ + 75.;Thigh board, o.A + 35.;Crus board, a 55 o ~ + 35.;Solution will cover and O.A + 90..2 Robotic nanomanipulation nursing bed of the control system in order to facilitate nursing bed of intelligent control, timely r solution of the current working state nursing bed nursing bed, upon the law to set necessary processes the number of sensors ”?.By analyzing the data, sensor transmission control system can real-time understand, control panel of motion, bed of different agencies to prevent the mutual interference or ask to overshoot driven motor bed body, unnecessary casualties caused damage.Control system overall structure as figure2shows.In bed in the control mode pose posture, besides using popular keyboard buttons input methods outside, in order to facilitate the weak and sick, but also increased the speech input mode + operators through the voice commands to manipulate nursing bed.Due to the common types of control chip difficult to complete the voice commands, because the recognition of the nursing bed the control system is divided into two major modules.The first part primarily control module, it consists of a single-chip microcomputer control system structure, used to implement the nursing bed system, including the main control keyboard/voice control commands to accept the position signal and sensor input, and the output motor control signal etc, the second part as auxiliary control module, mainly for voice recognition and playback, it will come from the operator's voice control command into electrical signals, then through code conversion, transported to the master control module, and accept the electrical signals to independent control module, will these control instruction convert audio signals of operator can understand.2.1 robotic nanomanipulation nursing bed master control module master control module at runtime receive signals from the keyboard/speech recognition circuit analysis and processing signal, through, will control signal through external interface conveying to speech playback circuit, signal by voice playback circuit will be transformed into voice signal, provide voice feedback signal, make handlers understand nursing bed real-time dynamic;On the other hand, master control module according to various signal command, control different motor running, so as to realize the lot that users period nursing bed functions?.Master control module mainly include the following each subroutine:

(1)keyboard input.The keyboard is nursing bed input control commands by one of the ways the keyboard input, by encoding commands sent to the primary panel by serial.(2)dc motor of the motor control.Nursing bed in accepting the keyboard or speech input signal after, started for the corresponding action to achieve nursing bed.This requires the expected function for installation in the main control panel can the nursing bed eight dc motor both the positive and negative direction of motor control.(3)sensor signal input.Position sensor motor sports location information feedback to control system, control system according to the feedback is returned to the current signal judgment motor sports location and condition, and then calling the corresponding procedure motion control 2.1.1 keyboard control circuit keyboard on the control board for user operation except r equipped with the keys outside, still configuration display the nursing bed the working state of indicator.Considering the keyboard and the communication and the main panel control cPu L / 0 mouths limited resources, so by a separate microcontroller keyboard to treat various task.Because the keyboard(2 x 6)and indicator light(8)required many I / 0 mouths resources, and chooses 89c2051 microcontroller only 15 L / 0 mouths, L/o u resources are limited, therefore in the SCM L / 0 mouths resource allocation, the single-chip computer keyboard panel serial communication between the main control board;Meanwhile, considering control cable is a certain length to increase the reliability of communication, communication, adopt the 232 level, so the hardware circuit MAx232 chips for added a convert.2.1.2 dc motor level control of the nursing function is nursing bed by dc motor to execute, motor drive nursing bed to complete the various movements, in order to achieve various nursing pose, include:(1)the backplane elevate/drop;(2)left/right turn physique increase/decrease;(3)thigh board increase/decrease;(4)crus board increase/decrease;(5)flat open/close;bedpan(6)lie low postures realize/reset;(7)sitting postures realize/reset;(8)SLR postures realize/reset;(9)bended leg postures realize/reset.Above all appearance conversion between and finish all through eight dc motor to realize, so is the main control board must be able to receive commands to eight dc motor after on E reversal, namely can realize motor control negative in nursing bed to electrify control the hardware circuit design, for each motor has adopted two blades double throws on power control.The relay to 2.2 robotic nanomanipulation nursing bed auxiliary control module 2.2.1 speech recognition voice control technology is one of the existing control mode of advanced control mode, it is natural and convenient control mode, good affinity, the characteristics of applicability.Will voice control technology is introduced into the nursing bed under control, will greatly convenient users, particularly in those loss or partly losing activity, ability of self-dependence of patients, voice control and can help them enhance self-confidence, reduce dependence on others, add life courage and confidence in nursing bed users.The characteristics of the speech input commands, used in the study of the beauty of sENsORY company RSc364 little voice chip as recognition core chip.By training and realize Rsc364 chip speech recognition function, system L/o level is TrL level, which can be conveniently and other system for data transmission.Rsc364 chip inside integrated A speech recognition needs A variety of functions, it can complete speech recognition process of anti aliasing low-pass filter, sampling/keep, A/D conversion and voice recording Rsc364 chip in complete functions such as speech recognition task, will voice control signal output to SCM by chip Po and mouth.According to the PSc364 P1, the output state in the Lord with voice recognition chips control by A 74Lsl48 between expanding in tablet 74Lsl48 fracture, voice command input eight feet of the chip, connect Pl input mouth;Rsc364 Expansion of single chip [J Gs meet in P3.2;SCM fracture P1.3 P1.O ~ mouth and speech recognition chips J J 4 ~ Po Po seven connections.When a voice command input, a mouth wipes the P1 output low level, Gs u lose “I low-level startup microcontroller external interruption of single chip, the interrupt handlers from P1.0 ~ P1.3 mouth when read people data.Laws 2.2.2 voice playback master control circuit, after receiving orders in control motor running, but also to voice playback son module lose J 【 J voice control signal by auxiliary control module.To the current users provide voice feedback.Speech with the main function modules put the son is: nursing bed receive user commands, in nursing bed function action before the speech information broadcast corresponding action, remind users do physical preparation, this kind of humanized design further improved nursing bed by the affinity of IsD4003_08 chip.Speech playback as the principal chip.IsI)4003 series work pressure is 3 V, tuen mun recording a single chip 8min” for 4-time?.Chip adopt cMOs technology, containing oscillator, prevent confusion filter,Smoothing filter, audio amplifiers, since the action pixels and high-density multilevel flashing storage arrays, operation orders at through serial communication interface input.3 robotic nanomanipulation nursing bed nursing bed robotic nanomanipulation control program control mode is a simplified robot control system startup way.After the first test nursing bed, then test each pose, switch state of each key-press test again, if one of the keys pressed nursing bed, then makes the corresponding action and start speech playback program told the operator, through the control speech recognition is like that, if speech recognition module identification, operator a directive, likewise, nursing bed complete corresponding action.4 closing the robot multiaxial coordinated control technique is applied in nursing bed, may to the robotic nanomanipulation nursing bed.The developed under effective control of the robotic nanomanipulation nursing bed as shown in figure 4 shows, it can achieve more bits of adjustment, and USES the posture voice commands and keyboard input two modes for control, easy and flexible.Moreover, the master control module USES a microcontroller, making the system operation r.flexible reliable, low cost.Currently developed nursing bed has in some hospitals trial, reflect good.Future research will set wipes on how to further improve the flexibility, coordination and system function of human development system, etc.

第二篇:中英文对照资料外文翻译文献

中英文对照资料外文翻译文献

平设计任何时期平面设计可以参照一些艺术和专业学科侧重于视觉传达和介绍。采用多种方式相结合,创造和符号,图像和语句创建一个代表性的想法和信息。平面设计师可以使用印刷,视觉艺术和排版技术产生的最终结果。平面设计常常提到的进程,其中沟通是创造和产品设计。共同使用的平面设计包括杂志,广告,产品包装和网页设计。例如,可能包括产品包装的标志或其他艺术作品,举办文字和纯粹的设计元素,如形状和颜色统一件。组成的一个最重要的特点,尤其是平面设计在使用前现有材料或不同的元素。平面设计涵盖了人类历史上诸多领域,在此漫长的历史和在相对最近爆炸视觉传达中的第20和21世纪,人们有时是模糊的区别和重叠的广告艺术,平面设计和美术。毕竟,他们有着许多相同的内容,理论,原则,做法和语言,有时同样的客人或客户。广告艺术的最终目标是出售的商品和服务。在平面设计,“其实质是使以信息,形成以思想,言论和感觉的经验”。在唐朝(618-906)之间的第4和第7世纪的木块被切断打印纺织品和后重现佛典。阿藏印在868是已知最早的印刷书籍。在19世纪后期欧洲,尤其是在英国,平面设计开始以独立的运动从美术中分离出来。蒙德里安称为父亲的图形设计。他是一个很好的艺术家,但是他在现代广告中利用现代电网系统在广告、印刷和网络布局网格。于1849年,在大不列颠亨利科尔成为的主要力量之一在设计教育界,该国政府通告设计在杂志设计和制造的重要性。他组织了大型的展览作为庆祝现代工业技术和维多利亚式的设计。从1892年至1896年威廉•莫里斯凯尔姆斯科特出版社出版的书籍的一些最重要的平面设计产品和工艺美术运动,并提出了一个非常赚钱的商机就是出版伟大文本论的图书并以高价出售给富人。莫里斯证明了市场的存在使平面设计在他们自己拥有的权利,并帮助开拓者从生产和美术分离设计。这历史相对论是,然而,重要的,因为它为第一次重大的反应对于十九世纪的陈旧的平面设计。莫里斯的工作,以及与其他私营新闻运动,直接影响新艺术风格和间接负责20世纪初非专业性平面设计的事态发展。谁创造了最初的“平面设计”似乎存在争议。这被归因于英国的设计师和大学教授Richard Guyatt,但另一消息来源于20世纪初美国图书设计师William Addison Dwiggins。伦敦地铁的标志设计是爱德华约翰斯顿于1916年设计的一个经典的现代而且使用了系统字体设计。在20世纪20年代,苏联的建构主义应用于“智能生产”在不同领域的生产。个性化的运动艺术在 2 俄罗斯大革命是没有价值的,从而走向以创造物体的功利为目的。他们设计的建筑、剧院集、海报、面料、服装、家具、徽标、菜单等。Jan Tschichold 在他的1928年书中编纂了新的现代印刷原则,他后来否认他在这本书的法西斯主义哲学主张,但它仍然是非常有影响力。Tschichold,包豪斯印刷专家如赫伯特拜耳和拉斯洛莫霍伊一纳吉,和El Lissitzky 是平面设计之父都被我们今天所知。他们首创的生产技术和文体设备,主要用于整个二十世纪。随后的几年看到平面设计在现代风格获得广泛的接受和应用。第二次世界大战结束后,美国经济的建立更需要平面设计,主要是广告和包装等。移居国外的德国包豪斯设计学院于1937年到芝加哥带来了“大规模生产”极简到美国;引发野火的“现代”建筑和设计。值得注意的名称世纪中叶现代设计包括阿德里安Frutiger,设计师和Frutiger字体大学;保兰德,从20世纪30年代后期,直到他去世于1996年,采取的原则和适用包豪斯他们受欢迎的广告和标志设计,帮助创造一个独特的办法,美国的欧洲简约而成为一个主要的先驱。平面设计称为企业形象;约瑟夫米勒,罗克曼,设计的海报严重尚未获取1950年代和1960年代时代典型。从道路标志到技术图表,从备忘录到参考手册,增强了平面设计的知识转让。可读性增强了文字的视觉效果。设计还可以通过理念或有效的视觉传播帮助销售产品。将它应用到产品和公司识别系统的要素像标志、颜色和文字。连同这些被定义为品牌。品牌已日益成为重要的提供的服务范围,许多平面设计师,企业形象和条件往往是同时交替使用。教科书的目的是本科目,如地理、科学和数学。这些出版物已布局理论设计说明和图表。一个常见的例子,在使用图形,教育是图表人体解剖学。平面设计也适用于布局和格式的教育材料,使信息更容易和更容易理解的。平面设计是应用在娱乐行业的装饰,景观和视觉故事。其他的例子娱乐设计用途包括小说,漫画,电影中的开幕和闭幕,在舞台上节目的和道具的安排。这也包括艺术品在T恤衫的应用和其他物品的出售。从科学杂志报道,提出意见和事实往往是提高图形和深思熟虑的组成视觉信息-被称为信息的设计。报纸,杂志,博客,电视和电影纪录片,可以使用平面设计通知及娱乐。随着网络,信息与经验的交互设计的工具,Adobe和Flash正越来越多地被用来说明的背景新闻。一个平面设计项目可能涉及程式化和介绍现有的文字,或者事先存在的意向或图像开发的平面设计师。例如,一家报纸的故事始于记者和摄影记者,然后成为平面设计师的工作安排到一个合理的页面布局,并确定是否有任何其他图形元素应当要求。在一本杂志的文章或广告,往往是平面设计师或艺术总监将委员会摄影师或插图创建原始文件只是被纳入设计规划。现代设计的做法已经扩展到了现代的计算机,例如在使用所见的用户界面,通常被称为交互式设计,或多媒体设计。任何图形元素用于设计之前,图形元素必须是源于通过视觉艺术技能。这些图形通常(但并不总是)被设计师开发。视觉艺术的作品主要是视觉性的东西从使用传统的传播媒介、摄影或电脑产生的艺术。平面设计原则可以适用于每一个人的版画艺术元素,并最终组成。3 印刷术是艺术,工艺和技术型,修改类型字形,并安排类型的设计。类型字形(字符)的创建和修改使用各种说明方法。这项安排的类型是选择字体、大小、线长、主要的(行距)和文字的间距。刷术是由排字工机,排字,印刷工人,图形艺术家,艺术总监,工作者和办事员。直到数字时代,印刷成为一个专业的领域。数字化开辟了新的视觉设计师和用户。排版设计师平面设计的一部分,是在网页设计中是图形设计,处理安排风格(内容)的要素。从早期的照明网页手工复制书籍的中世纪和程序,以错综复杂的现代杂志和目录布局,适当的网页设计公司长期以来一直是考虑的印刷材料,与印刷媒体,内容通常包括类型(文字,图片(照片)偶尔发生持有者图形的内容,没有印刷油墨,如模具/激光切割,烫金压印或盲目压花。平面设计师常常专心研究于界面设计,如网页设计和软件设计,最终用户的交互性是一个设计考虑的布局或接口。视觉沟通技巧、互动沟通技巧与用户互动得相结合和在线品牌推广,平面设计师往往与软件开发和网络开发人员创建的外观和风格的网站或软件应用程序,来加强用户或网络网站的访问者互动体验。版画是在纸上,其他有机材料或者表面上印刷艺术品的过程。每一张不会被复制,但时最初的因为它不是一个复制的另一艺术作品,并在技术上称为留下深刻的印象。绘画或素描,另一方面,创造了独特的原始艺术品。版画是由一个单一的原始表面创造的,在技术上已经作为基质而被已知。常见的矩阵包括:金属板,通常是铜或锌的雕刻或蚀刻石料,用于光刻;块木刻的木材,油毡和织物板的丝网印刷。但也有许多其他种类,讨论如下:作品从一个单一的印刷板创造一个版本,在现代通常每个签署和编号,形成限量。打印也可编制成册,作为艺术家的书籍。一个单一的打印可能是产品的一种或多种技术。色彩学领域是如何在打印机上和显示器上用眼睛识别颜色和如何解释和组织这些色彩。眼睛的视网膜被两个被命名为视杆和视锥的感光体涵盖。视杆对光很敏感但是对颜色不是很敏感。视锥却与视杆恰恰相反。他们对光不太敏感,但是颜色可以被感知。随着科技的发展,人们越来越认识到环境问题日益严重,大气污染、森林破坏、水土流失、土地沙漠

化、水资源污染、大量物种灭绝、石油、天然气、煤等资源枯竭。作为工业设计师,应该有强烈的环境 保护意识,使得自己的设计建立在不破坏环境及节约自然资源的基础上。

其中,温室效应、臭氧层破坏和酸雨是当今全球性的三大环境问题。

温室效应就是大气变暖的效应其形成原因是太阳短波辐射可以透过大气射入地面,而地面增暖后放

出的长波辐射却被大气中的二氧化碳就像一层厚厚的玻璃,把地球变成了一个大暖房。甲烷、臭氧、氯、氟烃以及水汽等也对温室效应有所贡献。随着人口的急剧增加和工业的迅速发展,越来越多的二氧化碳 排入大气中;

又由于森林被大量砍伐,大气中原本应被森林吸收的二氧化碳没有被吸收,致使二氧化碳 逐渐增加,温室效应也不断增强。温室效应的后果十分严重,自然生态将随之发生重大变化,荒漠将扩

大,土地侵蚀加重,森林退向极地,旱涝灾害严重,雨量增加;温带冬天更湿、夏天更旱;热带也将变 得更湿,干热的亚热带变得更干旱,迫使原有水利工程重新调整。沿海将受到严重威胁。由于气温升高,两极冰块将融化,使海平面上升,将会淹没许多城市和港口。

臭氧层破坏现象引起科学界及整个国际社会的震动。美国的两位科学家 Monila 和 Rowland 指出,正是人为的活动造成了今天的臭氧洞。元凶就是现在所熟知的氟利昂和哈龙。

酸雨目前已成为一种范围广泛、跨越国界的大气污染现象。酸雨破坏土壤,使湖泊酸化,危害动植

物生长;刺激人的皮肤,诱发皮肤病,引起肺水肿、肺硬化;会腐蚀金属制品、油漆、皮革、纺织品和 含碳酸盐的建筑。

总而言之,人类生活的环境已经日益恶化。

而恶化的原因大部分属于人类本身的不良生活方式和不 尊重客观规律,急功近利,对于地球资源的使用没有科学的计划性,而且在设计、制造产品以及日常生

活中缺乏保护环境的意识,以至于自毁家园,其危害不仅于当代,而且严重影响了子孙后代的生存。

环境问题在很大程度上是由于人们的不良设计、生活方式造成的后果。于是给设计师们提出了一个

严肃的问题:作为设计师,应肩负起保护环境的历史重任!

工业在为人类创造大量物质财富的同时,也给世界带来了灾难。工业设计在为人类创造了现代生活

方式的同时,也加速了资源、能源的消耗,并对地球的生态平衡造成了巨大的破坏。

所以,作为工业设计师,建立环境意识体现了其道德和社会责任心。设计师必须对自己的设计负责,必须把人类的健康幸福,自然与人类的和谐共存作为设计中心遵循的原则。

设计师还必须掌握必要的材料、工艺、化工、制造等方面的知识,使得其设计不对环境造成危害而 成为可能。

“可持续发展设计” 这一概念的提出,对于人性的回归及世界真正意义上的发展具有划时代的意义。他体现了设计师的道德与责任,已成为 21 世纪设计发展的总趋势。从此,人类传统工业文明发展模式

转向现代生态文明发展模式。它是社会进步,经济增长,环境保护三者之间的协同。

可持续发展是人们应遵循的一种全新的伦理、道德和价值观念。其本质在于:充分利用现代科技,大力开发绿色资源,发展清洁生产,不断改善和优化生态环境,促使人与自然的和谐发展,人口、资源 和环境相互协调。

解决可持续反展问题是一个技术创新和行为模式转变的问题。

可持续发展战略是解决在不危害未来几代人的需求前提下,尽量满足当代人的需求的问题。实现目

前利益与长远利益的统一,为子孙后代留下发展空间。

目前可持续发展战略考虑的问题有:循环性、绿色能源、生态效率。

绿色设计源于人们对于现代技术文化所引起的环境及生态破坏的反思。绿色设计着眼于人与自然的

生态平衡关系,在设计过程的每一个决策中都充分考虑到环境效益,尽量减少对环境的破坏。

对工业设计师而言,绿色设计的核心是“ 3R ”,即“减少”(Reduce)、“再循环”(Recycle)和“再 利用”(Reuse)。不仅要尽量减少物质和能源的消耗、减少有害物质的排放,而且要使产品及零件能够 5 方便的分类回收,并再生循环或重新利用。

绿色设计不仅是一种技术层面的考虑,更重要的是一种观念 上的变革。

要求设计师放弃那种过分强调产品在外观上标新立异的做法,而将重点放在真正意义上的创 新上面,已一种更为负责的方法去创造产品的形态,用更简洁、长久的造型使产品尽可能地延长其使用 寿命。

从材料方面要考虑: 原材料的存量和可再生性,获取材料时的环境能源的消耗与污染,后续加工时

环境材料的易加工性,低能耗性、低污染性,报废时的可回收性。

从加工制造方面要考虑:加工制造阶段需要将污染减至最少,或将污染消灭在生产过程初始阶段。

从包装、运输、销售等方面要考虑:包装的环境性能、绿色包装,良好的可运输性、降低自重、减 少能耗,当地化生产及减少物流过程消耗。

从产品的使用阶段考虑: 使用中的能耗、资源消耗。

产品更新换代时环境性能的模块化、可重组性、产品的使用模式等因素。

从产品的报废阶段考虑:易拆卸性,便于分解和分类,材料可回收性和可再利用性,零部件可重组 性或移作它用等因素。

清洁的能源:如考虑太阳能、水电、风力的清洁燃料;清洁的材料,涉及低污染、无毒、易降解和 可回收性;清洁的制造过程,考虑低能耗、少排放的制造;清洁的产品,涉及使用中节能、环保、报废 后的回收。

零部件的再生利用湿可持续战略的有力措施。事实证明: 报废的产品拆卸后,经分析,其中材料在

改进设计后可重用和经翻新后可重用的比例可以提高。

比如:一辆报废车中,金属材料占 80 %,其中,有色金属占 3 %~ 4.7 %。世界钢产量中的 45 %是 由废钢铁生产出的。中国钢产量的 25 %是由废钢铁生产的。

产品全生命周期管理是指从人对产品的需求开始,到产品淘汰报废的全部生命历程。其中包括产

品需求分析产品计划、概念设计、产品设计、数字化仿真、工艺准备、工艺规划、生产测试和质量监控、销售与分销、使用、维护与维修,以及报废与回收等主要阶段。将先进的管理理念和一流的信息技术有

机融入到现代企业的工业和商业运作中,从而使企业在数字经济时代能够有效地调整经营手段和管理方式,以发挥企业前所未有的竞争优势。帮助企业进行产品创新,赢得市场,并获得额外利润,以提高企业产品的价值。

GRAPHIC DESIGN The term graphic design can refer to a number of artistic and professional disciplines which focus on visual communication and presentation.Various methods are used to create and combine symbols, images and/or words to create a visual representation of ideas and messages.A graphic designer may use typography, visual arts and page layout techniques to produce the final result.Graphic design often refers to both the process by which the communication is created and the products which are generated.Common uses of graphic design include magazines, advertisements, product packaging and web design.For example, a product package might include a logo or other artwork, organized text and pure design elements such as shapes and color which unify the piece.Composition is one of the most important features of graphic design especially when using pre-existing materials or diverse elements.Graphic Design spans the history of humankind from the caves of Lascaux to the dazzling neons of Ginza.In both this lengthy history and in the relatively recent explosion of visual communication in the 20th and 21st centuries, there is sometimes a blurring distinction and over-lapping of advertising art, graphic design and fine art.After all, they share many of the same elements, theories, principles, practices and languages, and sometimes the same benefactor or client.In advertising art the ultimate objective is the sale of goods and services.In graphic design, “the essence is to give order to information, form to ideas, expression and feeling to artifacts that document human experience.” During the Tang dynasty(618–906)between the 4th and 7th century A.D.wood blocks were cut to print on textiles and later to reproduce Buddhist texts.A Buddhist scripture printed in 868 is the earliest known printed book.In late 19th century Europe, especially in the United Kingdom, the movement began to separate graphic design from fine art.Piet Mondrian is known as the father of graphic design.He was a fine artist, but his use of grids inspired the modern grid system used today in advertising, print and web layout.In 1849, Henry Cole became one of the major forces in design education in Great Britain, informing the government of the importance of design in his Journal of Design and Manufactures.He organized the Great Exhibition as a celebration of modern industrial technology and Victorian design.From 1892 to 1896 William Morris' Kelmscott Press published books that are some of the most significant of the graphic design products of the Arts and Crafts movement, and 2 made a very lucrative business of creating books of great stylistic refinement and selling them to the wealthy for a premium.Morris proved that a market existed for works of graphic design in their own right and helped pioneer the separation of design from production and from fine art.The work of the Kelmscott Press is characterized by its obsession with historical styles.This historicism was, however, important as it amounted to the first significant reaction to the stale state of nineteenth-century graphic design.Morris' work, along with the rest of the Private Press movement, directly influenced Art Nouveau and is indirectly responsible for developments in early twentieth century graphic design in general.Who originally coined the term “graphic design” appears to be in dispute.It has been attributed to Richard Guyatt, the British designer and academic, but another source suggests William Addison Dwiggins, an American book designer in the early 20th century The signage in the London Underground is a classic of the modern era and used a font designed by Edward Johnston in 1916.In the 1920s, Soviet constructivism applied 'intellectual production' in different spheres of production.The movement saw individualistic art as useless in revolutionary Russia and thus moved towards creating objects for utilitarian purposes.They designed buildings, theater sets, posters, fabrics, clothing, furniture, logos, menus, etc.Jan Tschichold codified the principles of modern typography in his 1928 book, New Typography.He later repudiated the philosophy he espoused in this book as being fascistic, but it remained very influential.Tschichold, Bauhaus typographers such as Herbert Bayer and Laszlo Moholy-Nagy, and El Lissitzky are the fathers of graphic design as we know it today.They pioneered production techniques and stylistic devices used throughout the twentieth century.The following years saw graphic design in the modern style gain widespread acceptance and application.A booming post-World War II American economy established a greater need for graphic design, mainly advertising and packaging.The emigration of the German Bauhaus school of design to Chicago in 1937 brought a “mass-produced”minimalism to America;sparking a wild fire of “modern”architecture and design.Notable names in mid-century modern design include Adrian Frutiger, designer of the typefaces Univers and Frutiger;Paul Rand, who, from the late 1930s until his death in 1996, took the principles of the Bauhaus and applied them to popular advertising and logo design, helping to create a uniquely American approach to European minimalism while becoming one of the principal pioneers of the subset of graphic design known as corporate identity;and Josef Müller-Brockmann, who designed posters in a severe yet accessible manner typical of the 1950s and 1960s era.3 From road signs to technical schematics, from interoffice memorandums to reference manuals, graphic design enhances transfer of knowledge.Readability is enhanced by improving the visual presentation of text.Design can also aid in selling a product or idea through effective visual communication.It is applied to products and elements of company identity like logos, colors, and text.Together these are defined as branding(see also advertising).Branding has increasingly become important in the range of services offered by many graphic designers, alongside corporate identity, and the terms are often used interchangeably.Textbooks are designed to present subjects such as geography, science, and math.These publications have layouts which illustrate theories and diagrams.A common example of graphics in use to educate is diagrams of human anatomy.Graphic design is also applied to layout and formatting of educational material to make the information more accessible and more readily understandable.Graphic design is applied in the entertainment industry in decoration, scenery, and visual story telling.Other examples of design for entertainment purposes include novels, comic books, opening credits and closing credits in film, and programs and props on stage.This could also include artwork used for t-shirts and other items screenprinted for sale.From scientific journals to news reporting, the presentation of opinion and facts is often improved with graphics and thoughtful compositions of visual information-known as information design.Newspapers, magazines, blogs, television and film documentaries may use graphic design to inform and entertain.With the advent of the web, information designers with experience in interactive tools such as Adobe Flash are increasingly being used to illustrate the background to news stories.A graphic design project may involve the stylization and presentation of existing text and either preexisting imagery or images developed by the graphic designer.For example, a newspaper story begins with the journalists and photojournalists and then becomes the graphic designer's job to organize the page into a reasonable layout and determine if any other graphic elements should be required.In a magazine article or advertisement, often the graphic designer or art director will commission photographers or illustrators to create original pieces just to be incorporated into the design layout.Contemporary design practice has been extended to the modern computer, for example in the use of WYSIWYG user interfaces, often referred to as interactive design, or multimedia design.Before any graphic elements may be applied to a design, the graphic elements must be originated by means of visual art skills.These graphics are often(but not always)developed 4 by a graphic designer.Visual arts include works which are primarily visual in nature using anything from traditional media, to photography or computer generated art.Graphic design principles may be applied to each graphic art element individually as well as to the final composition.Typography is the art, craft and techniques of type design, modifying type glyphs, and arranging type.Type glyphs(characters)are created and modified using a variety of illustration techniques.The arrangement of type is the selection of typefaces, point size, line length, leading(line spacing)and letter spacing.Typography is performed by typesetters, compositors, typographers, graphic artists, art directors, and clerical workers.Until the Digital Age, typography was a specialized occupation.Digitization opened up typography to new generations of visual designers and lay users.Page layout is the part of graphic design that deals in the arrangement and style treatment of elements(content)on a page.Beginning from early illuminated pages in hand-copied books of the Middle Ages and proceeding down to intricate modern magazine and catalog layouts, proper page design has long been a consideration in printed material.With print media, elements usually consist of type(text), images(pictures), and occasionally place-holder graphics for elements that are not printed with ink such as die/laser cutting, foil stamping or blind embossing.Graphic designers are often involved in interface design, such as web design and software design when end user interactivity is a design consideration of the layout or interface.Combining visual communication skills with the interactive communication skills of user interaction and online branding, graphic designers often work with software developers and web developers to create both the look and feel of a web site or software application and enhance the interactive experience of the user or web site visitor.Printmaking is the process of making artworks by printing on paper and other materials or surfaces.Except in the case of monotyping, the process is capable of producing multiples of the same piece, which is called a print.Each piece is not a copy but an original since it is not a reproduction of another work of art and is technically known as an impression.Painting or drawing, on the other hand, create a unique original piece of artwork.Prints are created from a single original surface, known technically as a matrix.Common types of matrices include: plates of metal, usually copper or zinc for engraving or etching;stone, used for lithography;blocks of wood for woodcuts, linoleum for linocuts and fabric plates for screen-printing.But there are many other kinds, discussed below.Works printed from a single

第三篇:交通运输外文翻译外文文献

交通事故分析的可能性和局限性

S.Oppe 关键字:后果;目的;描述;限制;关注;事故分析;可能性

摘要:交通事故的统计数字,尤其国家一级的数据对监控和预测事故的发展,积极或消极检测事故的发展,以及对定义安全目标和评估工业安全特别有益。事故分析是应用非常有限的分析,是前瞻性分析和回顾性分析,能够对新开发的交通安全系统和特殊过程的安全措施进行评价。目前迫切需要一个将实时事故分析与研究相结合的行为。将自动检测和视频录制相结合的研究交通事故的科研论文会比较容易接受。这种类型的研究最终会对交通理念有个完善的认识。

1.简介

本文主要是基于个人的经验,研究有关交通安全、安全分析以及事故分析等在研究中的作用。由这些经验推导出的哲学思考就像通过研究和统计得出的实践观点。而这些调查数字已经在其他地方发表了。

在缺少直接观察的事故中,许多方法论问题的产生,导致不能直接测试对结果持续讨论。通过看事故视频来讨论是富有成效的。事实证明,用来解释事故的大部分有关信息就是事故中缺少的记录。深入研究还无法回忆起所有的必要的用来测试有关事故发生的假设数据。尤其是车-车相撞发生的车祸,这是在荷兰城市道路交叉口录制的视频,一辆从岔路驶来的汽车与主干路的汽车相撞,下列问题可以问:为什么汽车来自次干路上,突然加速后又几乎停止,撞上了在左侧主路的一辆汽车呢?为什么没有注意到正在驶来的车?是不是因为两车从右边驶来,司机因为前面的交叉为他们提供了可能性而斤斤计较?难道他向左看过,但他认为停在拐角处的绿色货车能让他停下来?当然,交通状况并不复杂。目前这个事故中没有骑自行车或行人在拥挤路口分散他的注意。如果停着的绿色车能够在五分钟内消失,这两辆车可能就不会相撞。在事故发生的相关条件下,几乎不可能观察下一个交通行为,因为交通事故是不可预见的。由于新的视频设备和自动检测事故设备的不断发展,如在收集数据方面不需要很高的成本就能变得越来越逼真。必要的增加数据类型也能更好的解释交通中存在的危险因素。关于事故分析的可能性和限制性的问题是不容易回答的,我们不能确切的分析交通事故。因为事故分析涵盖了每一个活动中的不同背景,并根据不同的信息来源范围来补充资料,特别是收集事故的数据,背景资料等,我们首先要看看在交通安全领域的活动周期然后再回答事故分析的可能性与限制。这些行为主要是与交通系统的安全管理有关,有些则是相关的研究活动。

应该用下面的步骤来加以区分: ——检测交通安全问题;

——描述问题和它的主要特征; ——分析其原因分析和改进建议; ——选择和执行安全措施; ——评价所采取的措施。

虽然这个周期可以由同一人或一群人做出来,而问题在每个阶段(政治/管理或科学)都有不同的背景。我们用事故分析来描述这一阶段。做这个决定是重要的。很多关于分析结果的方法的讨论由于忽视之间的区别而成为徒劳的。政治家或道路管理人员对道路的个别事故不是很留意。他们对事故的看法往往都是一视同仁,因为总的结果比整个事故中的每个人的因素重要。因此,每次事故看做一个个体,之间相互协调就会达成安全的结果。

研究人员研究事故发生时一连串事件中每个人的兴趣。希望从中得到关于每次事故的详细信息并能发现其发生的原因和有关的条件。政治家们希望只是因为细节决定行动。在最高一级事故总数减少。信息的主要来源是国家数据库及其统计学处理系统。对他来说,统计意外数字及其统计的波动来进行事故分析。这适用于事故分析中的交通安全领域。因此,我们将首先描述了事故的这些方面。2.事故的性质和它们的统计特性

事故基本概念是意外,不管是其发生的原因还是引起事故出现的过程。两个简单的假设通常是来描述交通事故的形成过程:

-事故发生的概率与以往发生的事故之间是独立;-事故发生在时间上是同性质的

如果这两个假设成立,那么事故是泊松分布。第一个假设与大多数的批判不符。事故是罕见的事件,因此不会受到以前事故的影响。在某些情况下,有一个直接的因果链(例如,大量的车开到一起)这一系列的事故被认为是一个个体事故但包含许多的车。这个假设并不适用于统计人员伤亡。伤亡人数往往与同一事故有关,因此,独立性假设不成立。第二个假设乍一看似乎不太容易理解。穿越空间或在不同地点发生的的事故同样具有可能性。然而,假设需要很长一段时间并且没有缓缴期。其性质是根据理论的假设。如果其短时间内能成立,那么它也适用于长时间,因为泊松分布变量的总和,即使他们的泊松率是不同的,但也属于泊松分布。对于这些时期的总和泊松率则等于为这些地方的泊松率的总和。假设与一个真正的情况相比较计数,无论是从一两个结果还是总情况来看都有一个基本情况比较符合。

例如,对比在一年中特定的一天例如下一天,下一个星期的一天发生的交通事故。如果条件是相同的(同一时间,交通情况相同,同样的天气条件等),那么由此产生的意外数字是相同的泊松过程的结果。这一假设可以通过估算进行测试的两个观测值的基础上(估计是两个值的平均值)的速度参数。概率理论能够

考虑到这两个观察值的平均,用于计算的平等假设的可能性。这是一个相当强大的统计过程。泊松假设是研究了很多次,来获得证据支持。它已经应用于许多情况,数的差异表明在安全性的差异然后确定是否发生意外。这一程序的主要目的是检测在安全分歧。这可能是一个时间上的差异,或不同的地方或不同的条件。这种差异可以指导改进的过程。由于主要关注的是,以减少意外的发生,这种分析可能导致对治疗中最有前途的领域。为这样一个测试应用程序的必要条件是,那意外的数字进行比较是大到足以证明存在的分歧。在许多地方情况下,一个应用程序是不可能的。事故黑点分析往往阻碍了这一限制,例如,如果应用这种测试,找出事故是否在特定的位置数是高于平均水平。该程序的描述,也可以使用,如果发生意外乃根据数的特点找到有前途的安全目标。不仅聚集,而且还与分类泊松假设成立,而意外数字可以相互测试的泊松假设的基础。这种测试是相当麻烦的,因为每个特定的情况下,每一个不同的泊松参数,即,对所有可能结果的概率必须计算应用测试。然后,泊松分布近似为正态分布,均值和方差等于泊松参数。一旦均值和方差的正态分布,给出了所有的测试可以改写了标准零均值和

方差的正态分布条件。没有任何更多的必要计算,但测试统计,需要利用表绘制。3.行车安全政策事故统计的应用

分析那些假设的基础上描述的测试程序的类型及其优点。这种应用最好的例子是为一个国家或地区进行超过一年的安全监测,用事故的总体数据(最终的特定类型,如死亡事故)与前几年的数据相比较。根据数年的事故序列,能够分析出它的发展趋势,并大致预测以后几年的事故数量。一旦建立了这样一种趋势,那么在误差范围内未来一年或几年都可以预见。从一个给定趋势的偏差也可以进行预测新的事件。最有名的是斯米德在1949年进行的分析。我们将讨论这个事故类型分析更详细的内容。

1、该测试应用推广到高阶分类。Foldvary和Lane(1974),在衡量强制佩戴安全带的效果,谁是最早应用于值的4路表高阶相互作用的总卡方分配的。

2、测试不局限于总体影响,但卡方值就可以分解模型内子假说。另外,在双向表,卡方总可以分解成零件表互动的作用。对1的优势。和2。比以前的情况是,这对许多相互关联的(子)表和相应的智广场卡方检验是由大量分析,取而代之的是一个一卡方的确切划分。

3、投入更多关注的是参数估计。例如,在卡方分割使人们有可能以测试有关行参数的线性或二次限制或趋势的不连续性。

4、分析的单位是从数到广义加权计数。这对于道路安全分析,那里一段时间,道路使用者的数量,地点或公里数的车辆往往是必要的修正有利。最后一个选项是没有发现在许多统计软件包。安徒生1977年给出了一个用于道路双向安全分析表的例子。工资保障运动的一个计算机程序。这一级没有说明事故原因分

析。它会尝试检测安全问题需要特别注意。所需的基本信息包括事故数字,来形容不安全总额,暴露的数据来计算风险,并找到一个高风险的情况下或(团体)道路使用者。

4.事故分析研究目的

交通安全的研究是有关的事故及其后果的发生。因此,人们可能会说,研究对象是意外。然而研究人员的兴趣较少集中在这个最后的结果本身,而是多在进程更多的结果(或不结果)的事故。因此,最好是把作为他的研究对象,在流量的重要事件。一个在交通意外的过程,结果是,该实际发生是由研究者未落观测研究的主要问题。

调查一宗交通意外,他将努力重建了间接来源的事件,如涉及的道路使用者,所提供的资料或目击者有关情况,车辆,道路和司机的特点。因此这不是科学独特的,也有一个间接的研究对象的研究更多的例子。但是,第二个困难是,该研究的对象不能被诱发。有系统的控制实验手段研究只对问题方面的可能,而不是问题本身。

间接观察和缺乏系统的控制组合使调查人员很难发现在什么情况下造成事故的因素。虽然研究人员主要是在事故处理领导有兴趣,他几乎完全信息的后果,它的产品,意外。此外,事故背景是复杂的。一般来说,可分为以下几个方面:

-考虑到交通系统,交通量和组成国家,道路使用者,他们的速度,天气条件下,路面情况,车辆,道路使用者和他们的相互作用的演习,意外可以或无法预防。

-由于发生事故,也对这样的速度和车辆质量的因素,大量的不同,碰撞角度,对道路使用者和他们的脆弱性,影响等位置的保护,伤害是严重或或多或少物质损失是多还是少可观。虽然这些方面不能独立研究从理论的角度看,它也从由此产生的结果的优势,区分交通情况有潜在危险的数字,是由有一个意外的可能性,在这种潜在的危险局势,给定一个特定事故。

这个概念框架是对风险的关于个别道路使用者,以及上级的决定控制器的决定制定的一般基础。在风险的数学公式,我们需要一个明确的概率空间的介绍,基本事件(的情况),可能导致事故组成,每个类型的事件的概率,最终收在一次事故中,最后的具体成果,损失,鉴于事故的类型。

另一种方法是看事故特征组合,然后找出关键因素。这种类型的事故分析是通过分析事故的共组或子群来开展。事故本身是一个研究的单位,但也要研究道路因素:道路位置,道路设计(如一个弯道)等。

原文出处:SWOV institute for road safety research Leidschendam(会议记录),记录者,S.Oppe.POSSIBILITIES AND LIMITATIONS OF ACCIDENT

ANALYSIS

S.Oppe Keyword:Consequences;purposes;describe;Limitations;concerned;Accident Analysis;possibilities Abstraet:Accident statistics, especially collected at a national level are particularly useful for the description, monitoring and prognosis of accident developments, the detection of positive and negative safety developments, the definition of safety targets and the(product)evaluation of long term and large scale safety measures.The application of accident analysis is strongly limited for problem analysis, prospective and retrospective safety analysis on newly developed traffic systems or safety measures, as well as for(process)evaluation of special short term and small scale safety measures.There is an urgent need for the analysis of accidents in real time, in combination with background behavioural research.Automatic incident detection, combined with video recording of accidents may soon result in financially acceptable research.This type of research may eventually lead to a better understanding of the concept of risk in traffic and to well-established theories.1.Introduction.This paper is primarily based on personal experience concerning traffic safety, safety research and the role of accidents analysis in this research.These experiences resulted in rather philosophical opinions as well as more practical viewpoints on research methodology and statistical analysis.A number of these findings are published already elsewhere.From this lack of direct observation of accidents, a number of methodological problems arise, leading to continuous discussions about the interpretation of findings that cannot be tested directly.For a fruitful discussion of these methodological problems it is very informative to look at a real accident on video.It then turns out that most of the relevant information used to explain the accident will be missing in the accident record.In-depth studies also cannot recollect all the data that is necessary in order to test hypotheses about the occurrence of the accident.For a particular car-car accident, that was recorded on video at an urban intersection in the Netherlands, between a car coming from a minor road, colliding with a car on the major road, the following questions could be asked:Why did the driver of the car coming from the minor road, suddenly accelerate after coming almost to a stop and hit the side of the car from the left at the main road? Why was the approaching car not noticed? Was it because the driver was preoccupied with the two cars coming from the right and the gap before them that offered him the possibility to cross? Did he look left before, but was his view possibly blocked by the green van parked at the corner? Certainly the traffic situation was not complicated.At the moment of the accident there were no 5

bicyclists or pedestrians present to distract his attention at the regularly overcrowded intersection.The parked green van disappeared within five minutes, the two other cars that may have been important left without a trace.It is hardly possible to observe traffic behaviour under the most relevant condition of an accident occurring, because accidents are very rare events, given the large number of trips.Given the new video equipment and the recent developments in automatic incident and accident detection, it becomes more and more realistic to collect such data at not too high costs.Additional to this type of data that is most essential for a good understanding of the risk increasing factors in traffic, it also important to look at normal traffic behaviour as a reference base.The question about the possibilities and limitations of accident analysis is not lightly answered.We cannot speak unambiguously about accident analysis.Accident analysis covers a whole range of activities, each originating from a different background and based on different sources of information: national data banks, additional information from other sources, specially collected accident data, behavioural background data etc.To answer the question about the possibilities and limitations, we first have to look at the cycle of activities in the area of traffic safety.Some of these activities are mainly concerned with the safety management of the traffic system, some others are primarily research activities.The following steps should be distinguished:description of the problem and its main characteristics;selection and implementation of safety measures;the probability of an accident to occur is independent from the occurrence of previous accidents;-the occurrence of accidents is homogeneous in time.If these two assumptions hold, then accidents are Poisson distributed.The first assumption does not meet much criticism.Accidents are rare events and therefore not easily influenced by previous accidents.In some cases where there is a direct causal chain(e.g., when a number of cars run into each other)the series of accidents may be regarded as one complicated accident with many cars involved.The assumption does not apply to casualties.Casualties are often related to the same accident and therefore the independency assumption does not hold.The second assumption seems less obvious at first sight.The occurrence of accidents through time or on different locations are not equally likely.However, the assumption need not hold over long time periods.It is a rather theoretical assumption in its nature.If it holds for short periods of time, then it also holds for long periods, because the sum of Poisson distributed variables, even if their Poisson rates are different, is also Poisson distributed.The Poisson rate for the sum of these periods is then equal to the sum of the Poisson rates for these parts.The assumption that really counts for a comparison of(composite)situations, is whether two outcomes from an aggregation of situations in time and/or space, have a comparable mix of basic situations.E.g., the comparison of the number of accidents on one particular day of the year, as compared to another day(the next day, or the same day of the next week etc.).If the conditions are assumed to be the same(same duration, same mix of traffic and situations, same weather conditions etc.)then the resulting numbers of accidents are the outcomes of the same Poisson process.This assumption can be tested by estimating the rate parameter on the basis of the two observed values(the estimate being the average of the two values).Probability theory can be used to compute the likelihood of the equality assumption, given the two observations and their mean.This statistical procedure is rather powerful.The Poisson assumption is investigated many times and turns out to be supported by a vast body of empirical evidence.It has been applied in numerous situations to find out whether differences in observed numbers of accidents suggest real differences in safety.The main purpose of this procedure is to detect differences in safety.This may be a difference over time, or between different places or between different conditions.Such differences may guide the process of improvement.Because the main concern is to reduce the 7

number of accidents, such an analysis may lead to the most promising areas for treatment.A necessary condition for the application of such a test is, that the numbers of accidents to be compared are large enough to show existing differences.In many local cases an application is not possible.Accident black-spot analysis is often hindered by this limitation, e.g., if such a test is applied to find out whether the number of accidents at a particular location is higher than average.The procedure described can also be used if the accidents are classified according to a number of characteristics to find promising safety targets.Not only with aggregation, but also with disaggregation the Poisson assumption holds, and the accident numbers can be tested against each other on the basis of the Poisson assumptions.Such a test is rather cumbersome, because for each particular case, i.e.for each different Poisson parameter, the probabilities for all possible outcomes must be computed to apply the test.In practice, this is not necessary when the numbers are large.Then the Poisson distribution can be approximated by a Normal distribution, with mean and variance equal to the Poisson parameter.Once the mean value and the variance of a Normal distribution are given, all tests can be rephrased in terms of the standard Normal distribution with zero mean and variance one.No computations are necessary any more, but test statistics can be drawn from tables.3.The use of accident statistics for traffic safety policy.The testing procedure described has its merits for those types of analysis that are based on the assumptions mentioned.The best example of such an application is the monitoring of safety for a country or region over a year, using the total number of accidents(eventually of a particular type, such as fatal accidents), in order to compare this number with the outcome of the year before.If sequences of accidents are given over several years, then trends in the developments can be detected and accident numbers predicted for following years.Once such a trend is established, then the value for the next year or years can be predicted, together with its error bounds.Deviations from a given trend can also be tested afterwards, and new actions planned.The most famous one is carried out by Smeed 1949.We will discuss this type of accident analysis in more detail later.1.The application of the Chi-square test for interaction is generalised to higher order classifications.Foldvary and Lane(1974), in measuring the effect of compulsory wearing of seat belts, were among the first who applied the partitioning of the total Chi-square in values for the higher order interactions of four-way tables.2.Tests are not restricted to overall effects, but Chi-square values can be decomposed regarding sub-hypotheses within the model.Also in the two-way table, the total Chisquare can be decomposed into interaction effects of part tables.The advantage of 1.and 2.over previous situations is, that large numbers of Chi-square tests on many interrelated(sub)tables and

corresponding Chi-squares were replaced by one analysis with an exact portioning of one Chi-square.3.More attention is put to parameter estimation.E.g., the partitioning of the Chi-square made it possible to test for linear or quadratic restraints on the row-parameters or for discontinuities in trends.4.The unit of analysis is generalised from counts to weighted counts.This is especially advantageous for road safety analyses, where corrections for period of time, number of road users, number of locations or number of vehicle kilometres is often necessary.The last option is not found in many statistical packages.Andersen 1977 gives an example for road safety analysis in a two-way table.A computer programme WPM, developed for this type of analysis of multi-way tables, is available at SWOV(see: De Leeuw and Oppe 1976).The accident analysis at this level is not explanatory.It tries to detect safety problems that need special attention.The basic information needed consists of accident numbers, to describe the total amount of unsafety, and exposure data to calculate risks and to find situations or(groups of)road users with a high level of risk.4.Accident analysis for research purposes.Traffic safety research is concerned with the occurrence of accidents and their consequences.Therefore, one might say that the object of research is the accident.The researchers interest however is less focused at this final outcome itself, but much more at the process that results(or does not result)in accidents.Therefore, it is better to regard the critical event in traffic as his object of study.One of the major problems in the study of the traffic process that results in accidents is, that the actual occurrence is hardly ever observed by the researcher.Investigating a traffic accident, he will try to reconstruct the event from indirect sources such as the information given by the road users involved, or by eye-witnesses, about the circumstances, the characteristics of the vehicles, the road and the drivers.As such this is not unique in science, there are more examples of an indirect study of the object of research.However, a second difficulty is, that the object of research cannot be evoked.Systematic research by means of controlled experiments is only possible for aspects of the problem, not for the problem itself.The combination of indirect observation and lack of systematic control make it very difficult for the investigator to detect which factors, under what circumstances cause an accident.Although the researcher is primarily interested in the process leading to accidents, he has almost exclusively information about the consequences, the product of it, the accident.Furthermore, the context of accidents is complicated.Generally speaking, the following aspects can be distinguished: Given an accident, also depending on a large number of factors, such as the speed and mass of vehicles, the collision angle, the protection of road users and their vulnerability, the location of impact etc., injuries are more or less severe or the material damage is more or less substantial.Although these aspects cannot be studied independently, from a theoretical point of view it has advantages to distinguish the number of situations in traffic that are potentially dangerous, from the probability of having an accident given such a potentially dangerous situation and also from the resulting outcome, given a particular accident.This conceptual framework is the general basis for the formulation of risk regarding the decisions of individual road users as well as the decisions of controllers at higher levels.In the mathematical formulation of risk we need an explicit description of our probability space, consisting of the elementary events(the situations)that may result in accidents, the probability for each type of event to end up in an accident, and finally the particular outcome, the loss, given that type of accident.A different approach is to look at combinations of accident characteristics, to find critical factors.This type of analysis may be carried out at the total group of accidents or at subgroups.The accident itself may be the unit of research, but also a road, a road location, a road design(e.g.a roundabout)etc.

第四篇:1300外文文献翻译

Agricultural Land and Regulation in the Transition Economy of Russia Ekaterina Gnedenko1 & Michael Kazmin2 Published online: 7 July 2015 # International Atlantic Economic Society 2015 JEL Classification C10.L33.O57.Q00 This research note explores the link between farmland conversion and existing land regulation in Russia.We conclude that land regulation is lagging the new market trends in the transition economy of Russia.As market forces continue to penetrate the economy, apparent managerial and statutory problems with regard to local land-use planning and regulation preclude more effective use of land.Responding to the need for attracting investment in agriculture, the Russian Ministry of Science and Education provided funds for our research project that involves primary data collection and econometric analysis of the interdependencies between governmental policies and farmland loss.Our unique dataset contains socioeconomic, demographic and spatial geographic 2010 data for 39 municipal districts in the Moscow metropolitan region.The econometric analysis of this data set is used to explore the relationship among farmland quantity, its assessed value, the share of privatized farmland, farmland tax,and land-use zoning in the simultaneous equations framework.While the Russian market for real estate has developed quickly, the market for agricultural land is still thin.Farmland deals are limited, partly because of the lingering uncertainty about farmland property rights.The state-owned farmland is still significant.Our Moscow regional data suggest a strong positive relationship between the fraction of privatized farmland and farmland acreage, although the fraction of individually and collectively privatized farmland is only 57 %.The direct sale of farmland to foreigners is prohibited decreasing potential foreign investment as well.As a result, the area occupied by agricultural lands has been steadily decreasing and deteriorating in quality.During the period 1990 to 2005, tillable lands in Russia have shrunk by 10.5 million hectares(7.9 % of tillable lands).Lacking experience and adequate knowledge, local governments are stuck with the land conservation policies available to the former USSR.In particular, in an attempt to contain the loss of prime farmland, the regulators retain old land-use zoning laws prohibiting the change of land status.However, strong development pressures and widespread corruption often annihilate the desirable effect of zoning.The results of our econometric analysis indicate that the proximity to Moscow city and population growth both have a significant negative effect on the amount of farmland, even in the strictlyzoned-for agriculture districts, suggesting strong urban pressure in the capital region of Moscow.The estimated elasticity of farmland acreage with respect to population growth is −0.3.A corrupt practice of illegal changes in land status is reflected in the fact that the lands still classified as farmland in the Federal Register of Land are turned into residential or industrial areas.This signals a management problem which could be perhaps resolved by the introduction of more flexible zoning and an increase in the range of responsibilities of local governments and their property rights to land.The other economic instrument indispensable in land policy, land assessment, is also based on the former practices of the Communist period following a federally mandated general formula that takes into account soil productivity criteria, topographic features of the landscape, and the presence of irrigation, but still has little in common with the market price of farmland.When the agricultural land tax is calculated as the percentage of the assessed value of farmland, which is often below its real market value, local authorities are not interested in developing local agricultural infrastructure or increasing agricultural land base because they will not be able to reap any significant tax benefits from it.Coupled with the low federally mandated upper limits on tax rates(0.3 % of the assessed value of agricultural and residential lands)this leads to insufficient local tax revenues and overreliance on intergovernmental transfers.According to our data for the Moscow region, although localities tend to impose the maximum allowable tax rate, the average share of land tax revenues in local budgets is a mere 5 %.It is not surprising as the average assessed value of farmland across municipalities is 1000 times less than the ongoing average sales price, according to data we collected.The insignificant local land tax revenues caused by the underestimated land value lead to insufficient local infrastructure investment, which further suppresses the value of farmland and hastens its conversion.The results of the econometric analysis indicate lack of statistical significance between the assessed value of farmland and farmland quantity in the Moscow region, making the farmland tax rate an ineffective instrument in land policy.This missing link between the farmland quantity and existing land policies may render these policies not just ineffective but even wasteful.Innovative approaches such as the retention of development rights by the government might represent a temporary solution.The increasing reliance on local governance in solvinglocal problems would imply improved land-use and public finance planning and,perhaps, a slower farmland conversion trend.俄罗斯经济转型中的农业用地与监管

Ekaterina Gnedenko1 & Michael Kazmin2。在线出版:2015年7月7日。国际大西洋经济学会2015。冻胶分类C10。L33。O57。Q00 本研究报告探讨了俄罗斯农地转换与现有土地规制之间的关系。我们的结论是,土地监管滞后于俄罗斯转型经济的新市场趋势。由于市场力量继续渗透经济,在地方土地利用规划和管理方面显然存在管理和法律问题,妨碍了更有效地利用土地。为了应对吸引农业投资的需要,俄罗斯科学和教育部为我们的研究项目提供了资金,该项目涉及对政府政策和农田损失之间相互依赖关系的主要数据收集和计量分析。我们独特的数据集包含社会经济、人口和空间。2010年莫斯科都市地区39个市辖区的地理数据。通过对该数据集的计量分析,探讨了在联立方程框架下,耕地数量、其评估值、私有化耕地占比、农地税和土地利用区划之间的关系。

虽然俄罗斯房地产市场发展迅速,但农业用地市场仍很薄弱。农田交易是有限的,部分原因是土地产权的不确定性挥之不去。国有农田仍然很重要。我们的莫斯科地区数据显示,私有化耕地和耕地面积的比例之间存在着强烈的正相关关系,尽管单独和集体私有化耕地的比例仅为57%。禁止向外国人直接出售农田,也禁止减少潜在的外国投资。因此,农地占用的面积一直在稳步下降,质量也在不断恶化。在1990年至2005年期间,俄罗斯的可耕种土地减少了1050万公顷(占耕地面积的7.9%)。

由于缺乏经验和足够的知识,地方政府只能依靠前苏联提供的土地保护政策。特别是,为了遏制主要农田的流失,监管机构保留了禁止改变土地状况的旧土地用途分区法。然而,强大的发展压力和广泛的腐败往往会消灭分区制的理想效果。我们的计量分析结果表明,靠近莫斯科城市和人口增长对农田的数量有显著的负面影响,即使是在严格的农业地区,这表明莫斯科的首都地区的城市压力很大。在人口增长方面,耕地面积的估计弹性为0.3。非法改变土地状况的一种腐败做法,反映在土地仍然被归为联邦土地登记册上的土地的土地被转变为住宅或工业区的事实。这标志着一个管理问题,也许可以通过引进更灵活的分区和增加地方政府的责任范围和土地的财产权来解决。

其他经济工具不可或缺的土地政策、土地评估,也是基于前实践后共产主义时期的联邦法律规定的一般公式,考虑土壤生产力标准,地貌景观的灌溉的存在,但仍然没有与市场价格的农田。农业土地税计算时的评估价值的百分比农田,这通常是低于其实际市场价值,当地政府发展当地的农业基础设施不感兴趣或增加农业用地基地,因为他们将无法获得任何重大税收优惠。再加上联邦政府规定的低税率(占农业和居住用地评估价值的0.3%),这将导致当地税收收入不足,并过度依赖政府间转移。根据我们对莫斯科地区的数据,虽然地方倾向于征收最高允许的税率,但地方预算的土地税收收入的平均份额仅为5%。据我们收集的数据显示,由于各城市的农田平均分摊价值比目前的平均销售价格低1000倍,这并不令人惊讶。

由于土地价值被低估而导致的地方土地税收不显著,导致地方基础设施投资不足,进一步抑制了农田价值,加快了土地流转。经济计量分析结果表明,在莫斯科地区,耕地和耕地数量的评估价值缺乏统计意义,使得农地税率在土地政策中是无效的。耕地数量和现有土地政策之间缺失的联系可能使这些政策不仅无效,甚至是浪费。政府保留发展权利等创新办法可能是一种临时解决办法。在解决地方问题上日益依赖地方治理,将意味着改善土地利用和公共财政规划,也许还会减缓农地转换的趋势。

第五篇:园林景观外文文献翻译

景观设计风格和园林价值保护之间的关系:德国魏玛历史公园的案例研究

Martin Kümmerling, Norbert Müller 景观管理与生态恢复部门以及URBIO总公司,德国埃尔福特应用技术大学

关键词:生物多样性;历史公园;园艺;城市公园;植被; 摘要:

城市公园可以通过被引入植物的种植成为入侵源。另一方面,城市公园作为生物多样性的热点地区,可以支持保护濒危和罕见的分类单元。即使历史城市公园首先被评估为遗产,但它们依然为生态系统和积极的审美以及社会价值服务。

虽然在欧洲有许多研究是关于设计的,公园的哲学和历史背景就像生物多样性的研究一样,几乎没有研究提出景观设计原则如何影响了公园的生物保护价值。因为在欧洲,公园的景观风格是一个最具影响力的历史景观设计风格,我们将我们的研究集中在德国魏玛的“伊尔姆河畔公园”。它创建于18世纪晚期,并且在1998年被联合国教科文组织列为世界遗产的一部分。

我们的研究问题是: 1.哪些设计原则、植物原料和技术实施被使用在创建和管理公园的过程中?

2.对于公园的生物保护尤其是濒危植物物种和栖息地的保护来说,当前什么才是具有价值的?

3.设计原则和现代公园的价值之间是什么关系?

我们将我们的结果与类似的公园景观做一对比,并对未来可持续的公园设计和公园恢复管理给出建议。

1.引言

园艺是植物物种入侵的一个主要来源(Dehnen-Schmutz, Touza,Perrings, & Williamson, 2007;Mack & Erneberg, 2002;Reichard & White, 2001)。城市公园可以被入侵源通过种植引入分类单元而入侵(Saumel Kowarik,& Butenschon,2010)。另一方面,在城市地区公园可以作为生物多样性的热点地区(Cornelis & Hermy,2004),可以支持保护濒临灭绝的稀有类群(Kowarik, 1998;Kunick, 1978;Li, Ouyang, Meng, & Wang, 2006;Reidl, 1989)。尽管历史悠久的城市公园作为文物古迹是它最重要的价值,但它们在生态系统服务和积极的审美以及社会价值方面的作用也是被肯定的(e.g.Bolund & Hunhammar, 1999;Chiesura,2004)。

虽然在欧洲有许多关于设计的研究,公园的哲学和历史背景(e.g.Gothein,1928;Turner, 2005)以及生物多样性(e.g.Cornelis & Hermy, 2004;Ignatieva & Konechnaya, 2004;Nath, 1990)的研究几乎没有提出景观设计原则的问题如何影响了公园的生物保护价值。在18世纪末和19世纪初我们把研究的焦点放在了公园,因为在欧洲公园景观风格是最具影响力的历史景观设计潮流之一。位于德国蔚玛的“伊尔姆河畔公园”创建于18世纪晚期,自1998年以来,被联合国教科文组织列为世界遗产的一部分,它被称作“经典魏玛”。我们选择它来研究是因为: 1.这是那个时期一个“典型”的公园; 2.拥有几个世纪以来没有更改的设计风格;

3.在公园设计上有丰富的历史资料并且使用了有质疑的植物。在图林根的公共档案局初始搜索(自1567年以来都位于公园附近)证实了这种怀疑。我们的研究问题是: 1.哪些设计原则、植物原料和技术实施被使用在创建和管理公园的过程中? 2.对于公园的生物保护尤其是濒危植物物种和栖息地的保护来说,当前什么才是具有价值的?

3.设计原则和现代公园的价值之间是什么关系?

我们将我们的结果与类似的公园景观做一对比,并对未来可持续的公园设计和公园恢复管理给出建议。

2.研究地点

“伊尔姆河畔公园”坐落在德国中部的魏玛(215m.a.s.l.),公园的起源可以追溯到1778年。对于许多欧洲的历史公园来说,“伊尔姆河畔公园”是建在以前的一个规整花园的位置上(几何式的),它被设计在卡尔奥格斯特公爵的宫殿旁边。当时公园位于魏玛的郊区,1860年魏玛城开始扩展,公园便开始位于城市边界内。

在魏玛公爵的城市宫殿、北部的城市中心、现在oberweimar的suburbanised村以及南方的高级住宅区之间,公园形成了伊尔姆河的泛滥平原的一部分(图一为公园概况)。它周长1.5公里,占地约0.48平方公里。泛滥平原的土壤是冲积土,山谷两边所包含的钙质材料就像Keuper和含有石灰物质的贝壳。

图1 “伊尔姆河畔公园”栖息地地图

3.方法

3.1.设计的历史、植物引种和公园管理

通过历史文献研究来获得重要的设计原则信息,植物材料(包括引进外来观赏物种的起源和时间)和被用于“伊尔姆河畔公园”的创建和发展过程之中的管理技术。这些未发表的文件包括被保存在图林根公共档案馆的申请报告、管理笔记和前任园丁和设计师的相关档案,以及再版的历史性的蚀刻画和魏玛经典基金会收集的图纸。

另外魏玛经典基金会(特别是Beyer & Seifert, 1995)中的地方文献被用来将历史性文件中的发现与它们所处的时代联系起来。还非正式访谈了现任和前任园丁关于管理技术和植物使用的情况。

3.2.生物保护的评价 3.2.1 植物区系和植被的实地测绘

目前对植被和植物区系进行的实地测绘是在2006年五月—十月,用来对公园的植物多样性进行评估。公园分为不同的生境类型:草坪、草地和草场、灌灌丛、林地、生态交错带(草地边缘)、墙壁/岩石、路径和车道上的植物群落、河岸和水体,然后对每种生境类型进行随机采样。样品的数量基于每个栖息地的大小类型而不同(图3)。样本块的大小是用最小面积方法决定的(Dierschke,1994),每个样地植物种类的频率记录参照“Braun-Blanquet”方法(Dierschke,1994)。总共436个采样点建立,此外,在2006年五月—十月和2007年三月—五月进行了20次检测,记录了所有自发的维管植物类群。

436个样本块是用来确定最常见的种类,木本植物只有种子和树苗被计算。魏玛经典基金会登记(1996 —2007年出版)的公园的树被用来计算成年树木的分布频率。

植物的命名通常遵循Jager和Werner(2005)原则,但在公园里发现的分类群不列在这里,Erhardt、Gotz、Bodeker and Seybold(2002)被使用。3.2.2 在区域和欧洲级别上评价生物保护状态

评估生物保护公园的贡献方面,我们编制了在公园发现的濒危植物和栖息地,用于当地的图林根的红色数据列表(Korsch & Westhus,2001;Westhus & van Hengel,2001)中。此外我们调查了被图林根自然保护法(ThürNatG,2006)和欧洲栖息地的指令保护的植物物种和栖息地(欧盟委员会,2007年)。

评价公园作为植物入侵的潜在来源(生物入侵的定义遵循Richardson et al.,2000),我们将我们的数据与图林根州环境杂草的地区列表(Müller, Westhus, & Armft,2005)做了比较。

4.结果

4.1.设计的历史,引进的植物和管理

4.1.1 有关生物多样性的设计原则

随着欧洲景观设计的流行,Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach的Carl August公爵(1757 至1828)决定建设一个公园作为一个理想的田园景观,包括不同类型的景观:大小不同的开放和密闭空间、视觉上和周围的景观连接的形状和结构。它是根据英国经典景观公园原则——隐藏公园与自然的界限而设计,这些观点也应该在步行或骑马穿过公园时随处可见。

因此公园的主要设计原则是使用现有的自然地形和文化景观,它由在泛滥平原上暂时淹没并且经常收割和放牧的草原(草地和牧场)组成,还有在山坡上的果园和草地以及因山坡太陡而不能用于粮食生产的小树林斑块。公园规模增加时,新的景观被加载到之前的耕地上,因此这些栖息地可以定义为人为创造出来的。公园内森林栖息地的范围扩大到可以创造一个更好的氛围以及更大的并且多种多样的风景。

典型的设计元素是远景,通常延长这些切线来通过公园内森林地带,它有连接特殊节点(雕塑和展馆)和从不同位置打开新视野的特性。

公园里从来没有封闭的围栏或高墙,使得建立一个和周围环境之间无缝过渡的公园。“伊尔姆河畔公园”、蒂尔福特公园和贝尔维迪宫,加上一些沿伊尔姆河残存的森林形成的绿色走廊穿过魏玛,这就是公爵自修建公园以来的意图。4.1.2 引进的植物

因为大面积的公园是由现有的泛滥平原森林发展而来,并且草地原生植物多样性得到了保护。新的森林斑块、乔灌木树种原生林的出现是来自公园内靠近魏玛中部的公爵森林和种植在公爵苗圃的(图林根的公共档案馆未发表)。

由于视觉捕捉(特别指设计)和对植物的好奇心在19世纪第二阶段特别流行,非原生植物被引入与原生植物作比较。主要在有代表性的建筑和纪念碑附近种植了外来植物,也沿着公园开放区域的边缘种植。外来树种包括许多所谓的“英国木材”,从北美进口的树种像红花槭、赤栎、北美乔松。蔷薇属的许多品种种植的数量不多仅仅用于装饰目的,罗贝里草被种植在小池塘。

二战后公园里的植物苗圃被关闭了,从那时就开始大量的从欧洲以及海外引进植物材料。

4.1.3 管理技术

在历史时期,草地和树林是由当地的农民和牧民管理的,他们放牧绵羊、山羊和牛以及生产干草,观赏植物床周围的建筑物是由园丁和短工管理。

目前,部分河滩上的草地和山谷东部的斜坡仍每年收割两次,干草被卖给农民或用于堆肥。河滩上的草地用来给绵羊和山羊放牧仍然是公园的一个管理方式,车道的植被用除草剂来控制,墙植被定期清除。如果有必要,树的维护和复兴树林只是保障游客的安全和保护一些重要的优美景观,没有被游客使用和没有重要景观的地区则没有管理。

20世纪下半叶以来,增加娱乐用途和缺乏资金导致公园的集约化管理。例如在西部所有不同的草地一些经常割草坪(每年收割两次)和一些在泛滥平原的已经转化为频繁的收割草地(每年收割二十次次)。这一直持续到今天,已经导致草地丰富的植物多样性产生了重大的损失。

4.2.植物和栖息地多样性

公园植物区系的调查取得了479类维管植物。在这些里约59%(281分类群)都是本地图林根州的;15%是非原生植物(74)和26%的非本地种植的类群(124)。与图林根州的地区植物区系相比(Korsch et al.,2002)公园含有18%(355分类群)。

比较植物类群的起源及其在采样点的分布频率,(比较图2)很明显最常见的物种更多的还是本地的(主要是无处不在的类群和公园主要栖息地的类群特征)并不是非原生种群。车前子主要亚种主要是最常见的非原生类群,1500年前在德国被引入种植(Jager & Werner, 2005),是践踏植物群落、草坪、牧场和河岸栖息地的特征种类。下一个出现最频繁的非原生类群是小凤仙花、紫凤仙、雪果、欧洲七叶树和红瑞木。两种凤仙花在图林根被认为是杂草(Müller et al., 2005)。雪果、欧洲七叶树和红瑞木是观赏种,迄今为止它们还没有完全适应图林根。但它们已经在公园内种植,并通过管理控制使它们不再出现问题。

图2自然类群(N=306)的样地内记录(N=436),按照出现频率分组

在“伊尔姆河畔公园” 魏玛经典基金会记录了94个类群的3192 种树(最后更新到2006)。原生和非原生种群的数量比例是28%(26)和72%(68),但个体的比例和数量是原生的为73%(2344)非原生的为27%(848)。最常见的原生种是白蜡(409株)、欧洲小叶椴(305)、挪威槭(281)。白蜡和挪威槭在再生树种中也是最常见的。也是最常见的树种的再生。最常见的非原生种群是欧洲七叶树(273株)、刺槐(78)和加拿大杨(70)。这三个类群在公园里繁殖,后者只能通过分株来繁殖。这三个物种占主导地位,其它非原生树种种植只存在非常少的数量。

草地和森林栖息地作为公园的主导,覆盖面积分别为近三分之二和三分之一(见图1为栖息地分布概况)。这是栖息地中在物种总数和种数平均增幅方面拥有最高植物多样性的物种(图3)。由于被作为各种风景景观的组合而设计,所以公园里有许多交错的群落。它包含许多不同的植被类型,实际上物种总数是高的(图3),虽然每个样地里的平均物种数量很低。所有现存的其它栖息地,即水体、墙壁和岩石、践踏植物群落(车道、路径)和观赏种植园占据的区域小得多。

图3栖息地的植物物种丰富度

4.3.植物和栖息地的生物保护的价值

4.3.1 濒危、珍稀物种

图林根红色名单中列出了公园里包含的三个本地物种(Korsch & Westhus,2001):欧洲黑杨(极度濒危)、Rosa jundzillii Besser和葡萄风信子(都是脆弱的)。被归为非本地的暗花老鹳草也列为濒危物种。欧洲黑杨很少出现在伊尔姆山谷内的冲积森林山谷,R.jundzillii和葡萄风信子在森林公园以外也很少被发现。在歌德避暑别墅的花园中暗花老鹳草经常出现在群落交错区和干草原,但公园的其他地方没有发现。

公园里有一种典型的罕见种类是紫叶山毛榉。根据这个公园的历史文件,野生的各种欧洲山毛榉是在图林根北部的山区被发现的,在卡尔奥格斯特公爵执政时期它被作为一个特色植物带到公园。

四个受法律保护的植物物种(ThurNatG,2006)出现在欧洲中部公园里的山毛榉森林和它们的郊区:大花头蕊兰、雪割草、卵叶对叶兰和 凹鸽巢兰。还常青树紫杉是珍稀保护物种,可定期在山毛榉森林中被发现。两个报春花,欧洲报春和野生郁金香在几个世纪前被引进用作观赏目的,现在已经被归为受法律保护的濒危物种。

在“伊尔姆河畔公园”中并没有发现栖息地法规附件II中的植物种类(欧盟委员会,2007)。4.3.2 濒危和罕见的栖息地

图林根的介子草地和广袤的干湿草原作为具有历史文化性的濒危物种栖息地景观被列入红色名录(Westhus & van Hengel,2001),被图林根的法律(ThurNatG,2006)和欧洲栖地法规的附件1所保护(欧盟委员会,2007年)。

这些濒危物种栖息地占据三分之一的“伊尔姆河畔公园”。最古老的和最不受区域干扰的公园之一是“蛇草甸”,历史记录显示甚至在公园创建前草原也并没有被破坏。它是介子草地和干草原的结合体并在两者之间转换,也是在整个公园中具有最高植物多样性的地区(见图3,草地和牧场的柱状图)。因此“蛇草甸”表明公园可能是当代对具有历史文化性的栖息景观地重要的保护。这个草地是18世纪原始设计中一个非常重要的部分。这个公园的创造者的目的是让草地看起来尽可能的自然。

公园最频繁的交错群落类型之一是一种喜温树种,在图林根的红色名录中被列为弱势树种(Westhus & van Hengel,2001)并且受到法律保护(ThurNatG,2006)。4.3.3 环境杂草

在图林根州公园里有七个外来种,被认为是环境杂草(Müller et al., 2005)。只有3种被种植在公园:欧洲黑松、刺槐和加拿大杨。前两个被认为是栖息地多样性的威胁,而在图林根州第三个被认为是基因多样性的严重威胁。在公园的建设中这三个物种仅仅因为好奇心而被种植的数量并不多,但后来种植的数量有所增加。例如常绿杨是在18世纪末被首次引入的,但更多的是在20世纪下半叶为取代倾倒的欧洲黑杨标本而种植,因为他们便宜而且容易获得。

另有四种偶然出现的环境杂草即瘤果匙荠、紫凤仙、加拿大一枝黄花和虎杖,在公园创建的不同阶段并没有种植它们,但可能是在以后某个时间有意或无意的被引进了。紫凤仙在公园里是一个严重的问题,因为它密集地生长在河岸,覆盖了原生河岸植被。

图林根州环境杂草的列表(Müller et al.,2005)还包括分类群,被分成了潜在的环境杂草和对生境多样性的威胁。这个列表上有9个分类群在公园里出现,它们中的六个种植的数量已经很少了:臭椿、灰桤木、美国黑樱桃、复叶槭、亮叶十大功劳和欧丁香。最后的三种不被认为是对栖息地有害的种而在公园里被再次种植。其它3个类群大狼杷草、大型一枝黄花、小凤仙花是公园里最常见的非原生植物,但因为它被森林植被限制并且在原生植被后生长(早花隐芽植物)所以不被认为是一种公园生物多样性的威胁。

4.4.从前的景观设计和当前在生物保护价值之间的关系

我们发现如下一些公园设计和现代生物多样性保护价值之间的关系。历史公园“伊尔姆河畔公园”的主要设计原则是基于欧洲历史文化和自然景观的一种理想景观的发展,源自并根植于现代文化景观和它的生境以及与之匹配的公园现有景观。各种与远景相连的景观的组合导致了各种不同尺寸的林地和草地生境成一种类似马赛克状的分布。这就会产生大量的边缘效应(过渡带)从而创建各种各样的生态位。

因此在超过两个世纪保持连续性的管理制度是维持设计和公园里物种丰富的历史文化景观的一个重要因素。年龄以及干扰和园艺领域的物种丰富度之间的联系已经被其他作者指出(Li et al., 2006;Zerbe et al., 2003)。

前者泛滥平原森林地区及周边草地的大部分已被纳入景观设计并且被整合在公园里。周围的森林和草原上大部分用于种植的植物,在品种数量和特性上,都是本土物种。在大多数情况下非原生植物的每个种只种植了很少的数量。今天在图林根州有七种被认为是环境杂草的种植在公园里。在大多数情况下,它们对生物多样性是没有威胁的因为通过积极的管理可以预防它们再生。

5.讨论

除了大量的灰色文献,现在很少有评价英国园林风格的公园存在的价值。在柏林面积为0.67平方公里的“孔雀岛”被Sukopp调查(1968),面积为0.27平方公里的奥格斯堡“西本蒂施公园” Müller 和 Waldert 调查(1998),波茨坦公园的无忧宫、巴贝尔斯堡和诺伊尔加滕的草原总规模为5.07平方公里(Peschel, 2000)。几个在圣彼得堡的公园及其郊区被Ignatieva和Konechnaya调查(2004)。包括:帕夫洛夫斯基公园、在皇村的Ekaterininsky 和Alexandrovsky公园、奥拉宁鲍姆公园、在彼得夏宫的亚历山大公园、加特契纳公园和Shuvalovsky公园。上述所有文件(和我们自己的研究)显示了这些历史公园丰富的原生植物物种和栖息地的多样性以及濒危生物多样性维持的能力。这些在中欧和东欧历史公园植物区系的调查也证明传统草原和一般草本植物的价值不如树木和灌木。然而,我们的研究与其他欧洲研究结果证明,草原和珍稀物种和历史悠久的设计风格有直接的关系,也有植物方面和历史方面的意义。

我们的研究和俄罗斯的景观公园(Ignatieva & Konechnaya,2004)的比较也显示出相似之处不仅在设计原则方面(设计与自然),而且在管理和维护制度(割草和放牧)方面也类似。在德国和俄罗斯公园存在的某些相似的物种表明这两个国家之间种子可能通过经常在德国圣彼得堡工作过的园丁而发生了混合和交换。

所有上述公园的各种栖息地对历史文化的濒危栖息地景观都起到了保护作用,因为他们体现在在今天的农村风景。对“伊尔姆河畔公园”、“Siebentischpark”和“波茨坦的公园”的特殊保护价值是具有多种类型的濒危草原。每个历史公园都有自己的珍稀濒危植物以及独特的植物群落。例如,像湿地和原始森林的自然栖息地对 “孔雀岛”来说尤为重要。唯一管理开放草原的是帕夫洛夫斯基公园。有非常罕见的Poa chaixii 和 Luzula Luzuloides组成的地被在奥拉宁鲍姆公园应该被保护,而在加特契纳公园只有在公园范围内生长,在周围景观中很少被发现。

对于历史公园生物多样性的一个普遍观点(Kowarik,1998)强调现存的自然栖息地的重要性(例如水栖息地和露出的岩石)。

用和“伊尔姆河畔公园”一样的方式,作为濒危和珍稀(而且往往受法律保护)植物物种避难所的重要性在上述公园中确定。在俄罗斯公园中所有的珍稀濒危植物都有标出,以确保在恢复项目中被保护和保存。

欧洲和世界其它地区的现代园林景观经常采用英国园林风格设计原则的简化版本,全部使用相同的植物,并导致区域生物多样性和身份的丧失(Ignatieva,2010),研究表明历史的英国园林景观风格公园有助于维护该区域生物多样性和特性。

我们研究的目标之一也是提高参与历史公园恢复的从业者的意识,以及公民和政客(使用公园者)对一个公园生态系统的所有组成部分的生物多样性的重要性的认识。人们应该接受关于保护草原和稀有植物作为一个独特的资产的重要性。我们的结论应作为负责管理历史公园的专家的指导。在全球化和致密化的城市环境下,历史公园的价值应该等同于花园和公园艺术的纪念碑以及区域生物多样性的热点地区。

6.结论

历史悠久的英国风景园林风格公园是一个例子,告诉我们合理的可持续设计如何在城市工业区内提供重要的生物保护区域。从我们的研究结果来看,对未来公园设计和历史公园的恢复提出如下建议:

1.现有的地形和土壤条件以及现有栖息地(如中欧的森林和草地斑块)必须集中在一个公园的设计或在公园修复项目中进行,而不是从头开始。2.公园内使用的绝大多数的种子和植物应该(甚至土生土长得更好)是原生的来支持本地生物多样性以及区域特性。

3.相比之下非本土的观赏植物应只是少量运用而不是公园的主要组成部分。4.使用已经认识或被怀疑的非本地植物时必须避免环境杂草的使用。5.低强度公园的管理,尤其是自然或半自然栖息地中,区域生物多样性至关重要。

对于今后恢复或重建项目的规划者应该知道所有的珍稀濒危植物物种的位置并且他们应该在所有施工过程中采取措施尽量避免或减少对这些物种的损害。

致谢

本文的主题来自2010年5月在日本名古屋召开的第二届URBIO会议上关于“景观设计对生物多样性的影响”的介绍。我们感谢Maria Ignatieva(瑞典),Glenn Stewart(新西兰)和两个匿名评论者提出的宝贵意见。我们也要感谢魏玛古典基金会在对“伊尔姆河畔公园”数据收集时的支持与合作。

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