英语语法小知识

第一篇：英语语法小知识

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英语语法小知识

用作介词的to，to 有两种用法： 一为不定式+动词原形；

一为介词+名词/动名词，to 在下面的用法中是第二种，即to+ 名词/动名词：admit to承认，confess to承认，be accustomed to习惯于，be used to习惯于，stick to 坚持，turn to开始，着手于，devote oneself to 献身于，be devoted to 致力于，look forward to 盼望，pay attention to。

注意：

省to 的动词不定式

1)情态动词(除ought 外，ought to)：

2)使役动词 let, have, make：

3)感官动词 see, watch, look at, notice , observe, hear, listen to, smell, feel, find 等后作宾补，省略to。

注意：

省to 的动词不定式

1)情态动词(除ought 外，ought to)：

2)使役动词 let, have, make：

3)感官动词 see, watch, look at, notice , observe, hear, listen to, smell, feel, find 等后作宾补，省略to。常青藤张老 2017/11/16 星期四 下午 15:29:50

注意：在被动语态中则to 不能省掉。I saw him dance.=He was seen to dance。

The boss made them work the whole night.=They were made to work the whole night。

4)would rather，had better：

5)Why… / why not…：

6)help 可带to，也可不带to, help sb(to)do sth：

7)but和except：but前是动词do时，后面出现的动词用不带to的动词不定式。

8)由and, or和than连接的两个不定式，第二个to 可以省去：

9)通常在discover, imagine, suppose, think, understand等词后，可以省去to be：He is supposed(to be)nice.他应该是个好人。举例：He wants to move to France and marry the girl.He wants to do nothing but go out.比较：He wants to do nothing but go out.He wants to believe anything but to take the medicine

动词不定式特殊句型：too...to...句型，今天分享不定式的特殊句型另外两种句型

一、so as to句型：

1)表示目的；它的否定式是so as not to do。

Tom kept quiet about the accident so as not to lose his job.汤姆对事故保持沉默是为了不丢掉他的工作。

Go in quietly so as not to wake the baby.轻点进去，别惊醒了婴儿。

2)so kind as to---劳驾

Would you be so kind as to tell me the time? 劳驾，现在几点了。

二、Why not句型：

“Why not +动词原形”表达向某人提出建议，翻译为：“为什么不……?” “干吗不……?”

例如：Why not take a holiday? 干吗不去度假？

第二篇：初中英语语法知识总结

英语作文常用谚语、俗语

1、A liar is not believed when he speaks the truth.说谎者即使讲真话也没人相信。

2、A little knowledge is a dangerous thing.一知半解，自欺欺人。

3、All rivers run into sea.海纳百川。

4、All roads lead to Rome.条条大路通罗马。

5、All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy.只会用功不玩耍，聪明孩子也变傻。

6、A bad beginning makes a bad ending.不善始者不善终。

7、Actions speak louder than words.事实胜于雄辩。

8、A faithful friend is hard to find.知音难觅。

9、A friend in need is a friend indeed.患难见真情。

10、A friend is easier lost than found.得朋友难，失朋友易。

11、A good beginning is half done.良好的开端是成功的一半。

12、A good beginning makes a good ending.善始者善终。

13、A good book is a good friend.好书如挚友。

14、A good medicine tastes bitter.良药苦口。

15、A mother's love never changes.母爱永恒。

16、An apple a day keeps the doctor away.一天一苹果，不用请医生。

17、A single flower does not make a spring.一花独放不是春，百花齐放春满园。

18、A year's plan starts with spring.一年之计在于春。

19、A young idler, an old beggar.少壮不努力，老大徒伤悲。

20、Better late than never.不怕慢，单怕站。

21、By reading we enrich the mind.读书使人充实，22、Care and diligence bring luck.谨慎和勤奋才能抓住机遇。

23、Confidence in yourself is the first step on the road to success.自信是走向成功的第一步。

24、Custom is a second nature.习惯是后天养成的。

25、Custom makes all things easy.有个好习惯，事事皆不难。

26、Doing is better than saying.与其挂在嘴上，不如落实在行动上。

27、Do nothing by halves.凡事不可半途而废。

28、Don't put off till tomorrow what should be done today.今日事，今日毕。

29、Don't trouble trouble until trouble troubles you.不要自找麻烦。

30、Early to bed and early to rise makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise.早睡早起身体好。

31、Easier said than done.说得容易，做得难。

32、Easy come, easy go.来也匆匆，去也匆匆。

33、Eat to live, but not live to eat.人吃饭是为了活着，但活着不是为了吃饭。

34、Every man has his faults.金无足赤，人无完人。

35、Every man is the architect of his own fortune.自己的命运自己掌握。

36、Every minute counts.分秒必争。

37、Each coin has two sides.38、Fact speak louder than words.事实胜于雄辩。

39、Failure is the mother of success.失败是成功之母。

40、God helps those who help themselves.自助者天助。

41、Health is better than wealth.健康胜过财富。

42、Honesty is the best policy.做人诚信为本。

43、Hope for the best, but prepare for the worst.抱最好的愿望，做最坏的打算。

44、It is never too old to learn.活到老，学到老。

45、Knowledge is power.知识就是力量

46、Like mother, like daughter.有其母必有其女。

47、No pain，no gain.（不劳无获。）

48、You never know till you have tried.不尝试，不知晓。

49、An idle youth, a needy age.少壮不努力，老大徒伤悲。50、Diligence is the mother of success.勤奋是成功之母。

51、Early to bed, early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy

and wise.早睡早起，使人健康

52、Experience is the best teacher.经验是最好的教师。

53、Nothing in the world is difficult if you set、富裕和聪颖。

54、Where there's a will, there's a way.有志者事竟成。

55、Practice makes perfect ．（熟能生巧。）

56、Pride goes before a fall．（骄傲必败。）

Superstar and I It’s common that many students are crazy about those singers and actors.However, liyundi, a pianist, is the superstar in my heart.He is a man of few words and he even looks like the greatest pianist—Chopin.When listening to his music , I can get rid of everything noisy around.What’s more, I can feel his strong love for music.Rome wasn’t built in one day.He achieved the great success through huge effort.I can learn from him that we should never give up to realize our dreams.Superstar and I Her name first appeared as a joke then like a wonder.She is Susan Boyle, the superstar in my heart.Although she’s not beautiful, her voice and spirit moved all the audience, including me.The song ’I dreamed a dream’ that she sang touched everyone’s heart who had a dream and wanted to realize it.She taught me how to go on my dreams as well as never to give up.She is like a sunshine that gives me hope.Where there is a will, there is a way.答：下面是初中英语语法总结，你可参考学习，或许有不全面的地方，欢迎你有不懂的问题再具体提问。另外，我个人认为猜题对于提高考试成绩没有多大作用和意义，并不可取，建议你进行全面复习，打下扎实的基础知识，以不变应万变。顺祝复习顺利!

语法总复习

第一节

名词与代词

名词可分为专有名词和普通名词两类。而普通名词又可分为个体名词、集体名词、物质名词和抽象名词。其中，个体名词和集体名词为可数名词，而物质名词和抽象名词为不可数名词。名词的复数构成通常是在其后加—s；但以-s，-x，-ch，-sh和大部分以o结尾的名词后加-es；以“辅音字母+y”结尾的名词把“y”变成 “i”，再加-es。有些名词的复数构成是不规则的，有其特殊形式。有些名词在不同的情况下，属不同的名词词类，因此有时为可数，有时则为不可数：

名词的格可分为主格(作主语)，宾格(作宾语)和所有格(表示所有关系)。代词可分为人称代词，物主代词，反身代词，相互代词，不定代词，指示代词，关系代词，连接代词和疑问代词等九类。

名词的用法

可数名词除非前面有冠词或表示单数的限定词，否则要用其复数形式，例如： If a person disobeys the order，he will be punished severely． The teacher firstly divided his students into four groups．

The reference book can be used to answer questions，to solve problems or to obtain information on a particular topic．

These courses are especially designed for senior students．

有些名词的复数构成是不规则的，如：child-children，foot-feet。goose-geese, mouse-mice, man-men, ox-oxen, tooth-teeth，woman-women等。例如： Every fall geese f1y over the house．

The dentist told him that several teeth of his need to be filled． Mrs.Smith has three children，and Tonny is the youngest one． I think we've got mice in the kitchen．

有些名词的单复数形式是一样的，如：Chinese，Japanese，Burmese(缅甸)，Spanish(西班牙)，Lebanese(黎巴嫩)，Portuguese(葡萄牙)，Swiss(瑞士)．sheep，deer，swine(猪)，fish，carp(鲤鱼)，salmon(鲑)，means，series，species，aircraft，spacecraft等。例如： The best fish are near the bottom．

When they got to the New World，Spanish constructed their houses with Moorish architectural features．

I saw a white sheep running down the road．

Judging by his language，he must be a Japanese．

在表示一类事物时，介词of后的名词要用复数形式。例如： Beethoven is of the greatest musicians in the world．

The Animal Art Festival is being held at Shanghai zoo, which is one of the most welcome festivals in the city.As one of the countries that bear responsibility for the incident, German Chancellor Schroeder holds that the organization should apologize to Chinese government unconditionally.She is one of the three martyrs who were killed in NATO's bombing on the Chinese Embassy in Yugoslavia.大多数集体名词可作单数，也可作复数，如：army，audience，class，committee，crew(全体船员，乘务员)，crowd，faculty，family, government group orchestra，public，team，union等。但有些虽然是单数形式，却用作复数，如：cattle（牡畜）mankind(人类)，militia(民兵)，people，police，poultry(家畜)，staff(全体职员)等。例如：

The president said the Chinese Gowrnment is paying close attention to developments in this matter, and continues to reserve the right to take future action.The cattle, were grazing on the meadow near the farm.The audience were amused by his humorous stories.My family is far away from the school.有些名词只有复数形式，而且也只用作复数，如：clothes，glasses，spectacles，pants，arms(武器)，belongings(所有物)，customs(海关)，goods(货物)，suburbs(郊区)，papers(文件)等；而有些名词形式为复数，却用作单数，如：electronics(电子学)，mathematics(数学)，optics(光学)，politics，statistics(统计学)等。例如： The shorts he wears are made of leather.Linguistics is a difficult subject to study.He used to study electronics which isn’t his favorite suject． I love to live in the suburbs that are conclusive．

有些名词一般情况下以单数形式出现，表示总体。但如果表示若干、多次或几种时，则要用其复数。这类词有：hair，fruit，pollution，rain，difficulty，success，wind，failure，favour等。例如：

The barber had been cutting human hair for two years before he came to Los Angeles． Mother bought oranges，bananas and other fruits.These caves collapse easily in heavyrains, and great winds． He’s having financial difficulties．

有些名词一般只有单数形式，它们通常是表示物质和抽象概念的不可数名词，像：advice，baggage，bread，corn，clothing，equipment，education，fun，furniture，food，fruit，garbage，grass，happiness，homework，housework，humanity，information，knowledge，landscape，1aughter，machinery，mankind，merchandise，money，music，nonsense，nature，population，progress，scenery，smoke，sweat，strength，traffic，thunder，ink，jewellery，damage，mail，work，soap，sugar，gold，chalk，cloth，anger，applause，cake，chocolate，poverty等。例如：

I must seek the advice of a specialist in the matter of the transfer of property rights． Headache is the most common disease of human.I really get a lot of fun from reading in leisure time.The population of Shanghai is very big.有些名词单复数的含义不同，使用时要根据上下文的意思进行选择。这类词包括：communication(通讯)—communications(通讯系统，通讯工具)，cloth(布)--clothes(衣服)，content(内容)--contents(目录)，convenience(便利)--conveniences(便利设备), humanity(人类)--humanities(人文科学)，necessity(需要)-necessities(必需品)，wood(木材)-woods(树林)，pain(疼痛)—pains(辛劳)，ruin(毁灭)-ruins(废墟，遗迹)，sand(沙子)--sands(沙滩)，work(工作)--works(工厂，著作)等。例如：

“Hometown” is one of Lu Xun’s most famous works．

The insurance company paid $98，700 in damages for the accident． My child enjoys playing on the sands． No pains，no gains． 有些名词只有复数形式。如：fundamentals(基本原则), goods(货物), means(方法),shorts(短裤)，sweets(欢乐), valuables(贵重物品)等。

The fundamentals are made to guarantee the social stability Don’t take any valuables there for the sake of safety.The goods were purchased from him aren’t expensive.I think our problem can be solved by means of negotiation.名词做定语时，不能用作复数。例如：

Please check your examination paper carefully after finishing。

The China's Central Television Station supplies weather report everyday，You'd better inform my family members before leaving for Beijing． The United States and Germany are two member states of NATO.复合名词的复数只把其中所包含的主体名词变成复数。如：looker(s)--on，runner(s)-up，son(s)-in-law，editor(s)-in-chief，passer(s)-by，grand-child(ren)，armyman(armymen)，room-number(s)，shoe lace(s)，dinner plate(s)，blood type(s)等。如果没有主体名词，就在最后一个词上加复数词尾。如：go-between(s)，drawback(s)等。注意以man，woman构成的复合名词，全部变成复数。如：man-servant—men-servants, woman-soldier—women-soldiers。例如： Would you bring me some dinner plates? We had a wonderful talk with some women-soldiers．

Don’t regard yourselves as passers-by under such circumstances． We are of different blood types．

名词的所有格一般在词尾加 ’s，已有复数词尾-s的，只加’。例如： We must work hard to fulfil the country’s plans． The school is within a stone’s throw． Nearby are her relatives’ houses． Could you tell me the Smiths’s addres? 名词所有格有时还可以和of构成短语，有以下两种情况：

1)它所修饰的词前面有一个表示数量的词，如：a，two，several，some，any，no，few等。

2)它所修饰的词前面有+个指示代词，使句子表示某种情绪。例如： Several students of Lao Yang’s acted in the play． We saw a play Guo Moro's.At birth，the head of a baby is extremely large in relation to the rest of the body。I have some records of NaYing's.2．代词的用法

1)人称代词有主格人称代词，在句中充当主语：I，you，he，she，it, we，you，they和宾格人称代词，在句中充当宾语：me，you，him，her，it, us，you；them。例如： We haven't seen each other for a long time since he went abroad． Let you and me have an appointment for the next weekend.Have you got any idea about this issue? Tell us whatever you've heard.2)物主代词可在句中作定语，有指人的：my，our，your，his，her和their；有指物的:it，his或her(指国家或轮船)。名词性物主代词作表语、主语、宾语，与of连用可作定语：yours，ours，theirs，mine，her，his，its。例如： Tonny is an old friend of mine．

My dormitory is next to yours，and Mary's is on the third floor． Titanic sank with her several thousand passengers． Next time it's on my treat．

3)反身代词亦称自身代词，可作宾语、表语，作主语或宾语的同位语，还与某些动词连用，与介词连用构成成语。有：myself，yourself，himself，herself，itself，ourselves，yourselves，themselves。例如：

These children are too young to take care of themselves． Don't worry，he will be himself again soon．

Although Uncle George is a bad-tempered man，I think he is a kind man in himself． You should be responsible for yourself．

4)相互代词表示相互关系，有：each other(两者之间)和one another(多者之间)。例如： I met Miss Scott this morning，and we greeted each other． We should learn from one another and make progress together，5)指示代词在句中充当主语、宾语和定语，有：this，that，these，those。Such也是指示代词，可作定语、主语和表语，修饰可数名词时要与a连用。例如：

Nowadays TV programs are much more colorful than those Of the past．

The money spent on entertainment，according to some authorities，has exceeded that spent on public health．

I want to know this：are you talking about the accident I encountered yesterday? His future is closely bound with that of the company。

You shouldn't trust on such a person who never keeps his promise． 6)疑问代词有who，whom，whose，what which。who可作主语和表语；whom作宾语，whose，what，which可作主语、表语、宾语和定语，其中作主语时，要看所代表的人或物是单数还是复数，如果不清楚，则动词一般用单数。Who will see to this matter? Whom have you chosen to be responsible for the work? It is hard to decide whose is better.What’s on your schedule?

Which university did he enter at last? 7)关系代词有who，whom，whose，that，which。which代表事物，that代表人或物；在非限制性定语从句中，不能用that，而用who(m)代表人，用which代表物，或代表主句所说的全部内容。在带有a11，something，nothing，anything，much等的句子中不能用which，而用that。例如：

Our football team was defeated again，which shows our players need much more effort． The factory now has over 1,000 workers，half of whom are women． He promised to tell us all that he knew．

Whose turn to make presentation is bcyond me.8)连接代词有：what，who，whonl，whose，which，用来连接主语从句、宾语从句和表浯从句。Whoever，whomever，whichever，whatever为复合代词。例如： I didn't know what to do at that very moment．

The government sell public houses to whoever provides enough amount Of money． Whomever I worry about is none of your business． Take whichever you like，please．

第二节形容词与副词

形容词和副词在语法结构上都有比较级和最高级，它们的构成方法基本上一样，都与音节多少有关，有些形容词和副词有特殊的比较级和最高级形式。二者基本分为同级比较、比较级和最高级三种形式。

1．形容词与副词的用法

形容词中有词形相近的，也有词义相近的，应注意区别。如：

1)behind(在后的)---hind(后部的)，considerate(周到的，体贴的)---considerable(应考虑的)，eminent(闻名的)--imminent(紧迫的)，gracious(亲切的)---graceful(优雅的)，like(有生命的)---alive(活的)，industrious(勤劳的)--industrial(工业的)，like(同样的)---alike(同样的，仅作表语)，opposite(相对的)---opposing(反对的)，perspective(透视的)---respective(各自的)，sensitive(伤感的)---sensible(明显的)，etc。例如：

We did enjoy your staying in Beijing，and Mrs.Yan is really considerate． Professor Li has many world-famous inventions，and he is respectable to us．

As any one knows that we use our front teeth for biting and our hind teeth for chewing． It’s a considerable success for him．

2)elemental(初步的)--fundamental(基本的)，eligible(合格的)--capable(能干的)，flexible(灵活的)--changeable(可改变的)，initial(最初的)--preliminary(初步的，预备的)，slack(松弛的)--lazy(懒惰的)，valueless(无价值的)--priceless(无价的)，vivid(生动的)一living(活的)，etc．。例如：

Henry’s speech was so vivid that his audience applauded againand again，It is easier to adapt to new situations if one has a flexible attitude． We have finished the preliminary exam．

Your suggestion is priceless，and 1 will consider carefully． 3)有些词尾为-ly的并非副词，而是形容词，如：lovdy，likdy，deadly，earthly(现世的)，leisurdy(空闲的)，weekly，yearly，manly(丈夫气概的)，brotherly，friendly等。例如： What a lovely girl Jenny is．She is always ready to help others． China Daily is of course a daily newspaper but not a weekly one． He is a very friendly young man．

As he didn't have anyexperience，he was likely to have problems．

以下情况形容词常用于后置：1)形容词短语，即形容词+副词，介词短语或不定式。2)一些表语性形容词要后置，如：present，available，involved，concerned，etc,。3)形容词修饰不定代词something，anything，everything时要后置。例如： There was something nice about my feeling that she knew a11．

For this reason，as well as the additional cost involved，flow force compensation is generally not desirable．

I came across another question hard to answer then． I wondered if there was a room available．

副词的位置为：修饰哪个词就放在哪个词前面；放在系动词和助动词之后，行为动词和分词之前。例如：

I had only five-dollar bill with me when l boarded the townward train． The old law were instituted to protect the long neglected rights of children.I can hardly believe that he is the murderer．

Although he has advantages，it is still too early to say that he is sure to win． 2．比较级与最高级的基本形式和用法

形容词的比较级和最高级的构成为：单音节词一般在词尾加-er和-est。如果以-e结尾，仅加-r和-st；如末尾仅有一个辅音字母，须双写词尾冉加-er和-est；如果以y结尾的，把y变i，加-er，-est；多音节单词和双音节词(其中包括由分词和分词演变而来的形容词，如：known，worn，wounded，shocking，striking，interesting，ect, 则在其前加more和most；有些形容词的比较级和最高级是不规则的，如：good(well)-better-best，bad(ill)-worse-worst，many(much)-more-most，little-less-least，far-farther(further)-farthest(furthest)。有些形容词没 有比较级形式，如：absolute，chief，entire，eternal，excellent，fatal，final，foremost，inevitable，infinite，main，naked，perfect，possible，primary，right，sufficient，supreme，universal，utter，vital，whole，wooden，etc，例如： Mary is the best student in the class．

Further negotiation will be conducted next month． The food we have is sufficient.Needless to say，he is stronger than his opponent．

一般副词的比较级和最高级与形容词一样，单音节的以在词尾加-er和-est构成，多音节的以加more和most的方法构成；有些比较特殊，如：well—better-best，badly-worse-worst，much-more-most，little-less-least。以-ly结尾的副词，在其前面加more，most, 例如： Tonny runs most quickly than any other students in the class．

Which do you like best，Thorn Birds，Gone With the Wind Or Great Expectation? I prefer less sugar in the milk．

She gets more income every month than her husband．

形容词和副词的原级比较由“as+形容词或副词(或后跟名词或短语)+as”构成，“as„as’’前可加not，just，almost，nearly，quite，twice，several times等词修饰。否定式中not后面的as可改为so。例如：

Running for fifteen minutes will burn as many calories as walking for thirty minutes． Henan province is several times as large as Shanghai． Jimmy has as nervous a ways peaking as his father． Getting rid of a bad habit isn't so simple as taking it up． 形容词和副词的比较级形式为：“形容词(副词)比较级+than+„”，应注意than前后相比较的人或物要一致。比较级前可以跟even，much，still等副词修饰比较级，表示强调。例如： Mother worried much more about my younger brother than she did about me． Sound travels faster through water than throughI air．

The economic development in South China is faster than that in North China． My books are much more than Li Ping's． 形容词和副词的最高级的形式分别为：“the+形容词最高级十名词+范围表达”和“副词最高级+名词+范围表达”，副词的比较级和最高级不需要加the。例如：

Our foreign exchange reserve didn't decline despite the worst flood in sixty years． I finisbed the work more successfully than he had expected．

应注意以下表达式的含义：the same„as(和„„一样)，no less than(不少于)，not less than(只有)，had better(最好)，less than(不到)，more or less(或多或少)，other than(除了)，rather than(而不是)，the more„the more/less(越„„就越„„)例如：

I am sure that the amount of money used in repaying a loan would have the same value as the amount of money borrowed．

You had better finisll your homework today for the teacher will collect it tomorrow．

We have received ten dozen of personal computers which are less than the amount we ordered． The visltors to the exhibition were not less than three hundred，which disappointed them very much．

第三节

从句

从句分为定语从句，状语从句和名词从句三大类。定语从句又分为限定性和非限定性从句两种，由关系代词或关系副词引导，修饰主句的某个成分。状语从句分为时间、结果、让步、原因、条件及行为方式状语从句。名词从句包括主语、宾语、表语和同位语从句及there be句型。1．定语从句

限定性定语从句中that可代表人和事，而which只代表事；二者在从句中作主语或宾语。that作宾语时常可省略，which则不能，而且其后的“不及物动词+介词’’中的介词不能省略。which作宾语时，先行词与which之间的介词不能省。例如： The first doll that could say“mama”was invented in 1830．

The second half of his voyage was by far the more dangerous part，during which he sailed round the Cape Horn．

代表a11，anything，something，nothing，much等词时，用that而不用which，that作宾语可省略。例如：

I care anything that has something to do with it．

You'd better do something he prefers to do to please him．

That is the last time we met each other．

I came across the woman you told me about yesterday．

who和whom引导的从句用来修饰人，分别作从句的主语和宾语。where是关系副词，用于表示地点的定语从句，而when用来表示时间。whose是关系代词，修饰名词作定语。例如: Henry Ford is the person who is most responsible for developing the idea of mass production．

The knee is the joint where the thigh bone meets the large bone of the lower leg．

The next morning, when she came down to breakfast , Mary was beaming with the pleasure of a new，great discovery．

The visiting professor is a famous scientist whose son studies in my department．

在下列情况，限定性定语从句的关系代词可以省略：1)当关系代词在从句中作宾语或表语；或它们在从句中作介词的宾语，而该介词又在句末时；2)当先行词是that，all，only，everything，something，nothing等代词时，或先行词前有一个最高级形容词修饰时；3)当先行词前有only，any，all，first，no，last等修饰时，或先行词就是time，moment，way(anyway)，direction，distance等名词时，关系代词即可省略。例如：

The delegation we had been waiting for finally arrived． I met the woman you told me about． She gave me all she could afford．

With TV we can see things happen almost at the exact moment they are happening．

非限定性定语从句，其作用为：对所修饰的成分作进一步的说明，它与主句用逗号隔开。此类从句省略后其余部分仍可成立。在非限定性定语从句中，which可代表前面的整个句子；代表人时只能用who，whom，而不能用that；as也可用作关系代词。例如: The telephone，as we know，was the invention of Alexander Graham Bell．

The Little White House in Warm Springs was the Georgia home President Franklin D．Roosevelt，who died there on April 12，1945．

Living in a damp house for a long time is harmful to one’s health，which is known to everyone． 2．状语从句

状语从句可分为：时间状语从句(主要由when，whenever，after，before，a5，slnce，once，assoonas，Until，while等连词引导)，结果状语从句(由so„that和such„that连接)，让步状语从句(由though，although, no matter，even if, however，whatever等词引导)，原因状语从句(由as，because，since和for引导)，条件状语从句(由if, whether，as long as，provided that等词引导)，地点状语从句(由where引导)，行为方式状语从句(由as引导)。有时条件状语从句中，主句不可以用将来时，而用一般时代替。例如： The small greenish flowers of the elm tree appear in the Spring, long before the leaves grow.QiongYao's novels used to be so popular that her books appeared on best-seller lists.Gas balloon is less safe than hot balloon because it may catch fire.Uniform acceleration(同样的加速)occurs if the rate of change remains the same over successive equal intervals of time．

Thousands of Chinese college students went to the US Consulate Shanghai，where they protested NATO's bombing at China's Embassy in Yugoslavia.状语从句中的 “主语+be”可以省略，前提是：从句主语和主句主语一致，且从句谓语“be”省略后的结构为“连词+现在分词／过去分词介词短语／形容词／名词短语”。)例如： When well fitted, glasses can correct most sight defects in healthy eyes． If necessary，I would like to see you in your office.Although seriously wounded，he never complained． 3．名词从句

名词从句包括主语从句、宾语从句，其中有介词与形容词的宾语从句、表语从句和同位语从句。主语从句

主语从句常出现在it is+名词、形容词、分词+主语从句”的形式中。例如：

It is reported that Taiwanese pop singer Meng Tingwei will hold a solo concert in Shanghai someday this month．

It must be pointed out that you have failed to meet the deadline． It usually happened that I was late because of traffic jams.主语从句还可用when，where，how，why，whether等连接副词，和who，whom，whose，what，which，whoever，whatever，whichever等连接代词来引起。例如： How to arrange the meeting is not your task．

Whose candidate will win the election is the question both political parties are asking． When I leave is my own decision.Whoever will go to the party won't change my mind of staying at home． 2)宾语从句

宾语从句可由that, 疑问代词或副词how，why和where等引出。例如：To postpone the conference until next month indicated that they were unprepared． Nearly a11 the staff agreed with what I said．

Everyone worried about her because no one was aware of where she had gone． Could you offer more details except that it happened at night? 由what，whether，how引导的宾语从句可用在介词后，而由that引导的从句只跟but，besides，except，in, save之后。例如: I can hardly believe in what they have done.He doesn’t know my phone number except that the city code is 021.一些表语性的形容词，如：alarmed，amazed，annoyed，astonished, certain，confident, disappointed, glad, pleased, proud, sad, shocked, sure, surprised, worried, ect.做表语时，后面可跟由that, how等引导的宾语从句。例如：

I was amazed how he could pass the exam without attending the lectures． He is confident that he will pass the Band 6 examination． She was surprised how simple his problem is．

We are all pleased that he will be able to pass the final examination.3)表语从句

表语从句对主语的内容起解释和阐述的作用；若表语从句用that引起，that起连接作用，不能省略。b表语从句也可用连接词how，when，where，why，what引起。由because引起的表语从句通常只用在“this／that／it is because” 结构中。例如： A logarithm(对数)is what is known in algebra exponent(代数的指数)． One thing I admire most about them is that they are hospitable． She works too hard；That is why she is exhausted．

I must point out that where you intend to build a super-market is where the elderly do exercise every day． 4)同位语从句

同位语从句是由两个或两个以上同一层次语言单位组成的结构，其中前项与后项所指相同，句法功能相同。同位语从句由that引导，也可由whether，how，why，where, when等来引导。例如：

She ignored the teacher's instruction that she must study hard．

The question whether or not I should help him in such a case troubled me greatly．

第四节

动词不定式

1．不定式的基本形式与结构

动词不定式指通常由to加上动词原形(如to write)所构成的一种非限定性动词形式，但在有些情况下to可以省略。动词不定式有进行体和完成体(如上to be writing，to have written)，也有被动态(如to be written)，所有的主动词，不论是及物动词还是不及物动词，也不论是动作动词还是状态动词，都有不定式形式。助动词除be和have外, 没有不定式形式。动词不定式在语法功能上可作主语、宾语、表语、定语和状语。2．不定式的用法 1)不定式结构作主语

Te get contact with his family in Taiwan made him extremely happy since they separated more than 40 years ago．

To finish that task in such a short time is really a challenge．

在上述情况下，如果不定式较长，显得头重脚轻，则可由代词让作形式主语(形式主语it不可由that或this等其他代词代替)，而将不定式放到后面。如：

It made him extremely happy to get contact with his family in Taiwan since they separated more than 40 years ago．

John admitted that it is always difficult for him to be on time．

不定式结构所表示的动作是谁做的，即不定式的逻辑主语，通常可以通过for sb.to do sth.结构表达：

It is quite important for us to read good books during a general review． It is not difficult fot those talented students to pass the exam.在某些形容词(如careless，clever，considerate，foolish，good，impolite，kind, naughty，nice，silly，stupid等)作表语时，不定式后可以加of来引导出其逻辑主语： It is very kind of you to tell me the truth． It is stupid of him to do such a silly thing． 2)不定式作宾语

不定式作宾语有两种：一种是及物动词后直接跟带to的不定式, 另一种是“及物动词+疑问词+带to的不定式。及物动词+带to的不定式结构: 只能跟动词不定式的动词，常见的有: afford, agree, aim, appear, ask, believe, care，claim，decide demand, desire, determine, expect, fail, happen, hesitate, hope, intend, learn, long, manage, offer, pretend, promise, prepare, refuse, seek, swear, undertake，want, wish等。He managed to solve the complicated problem.The stranger offered to show me the way.Mr.Smith undertook to build a new plant in South Africa.动词+疑问代(副)词+不定式：

这类动词常见的有advise, decide, find out, forget, inquire, know, learn, see, regard, remember, teach, tell, understand, wonder等。常见的疑问代(副)词有: what, when, where, which, how, whether等。

He does not know when to start.You can decide whether to continue or to stop.I will show you how to deal with it.有时，不定式可由it代替，而把不定式放到后面去。这可以用这一结构表达：动词(如find, think，consider，feel等)+it+ 形容词+不定式。

She considers it necessary to make friends with him.We find it difficult to finish all the homework before 9 o’clock.3)不定式做表语

一种情况为主语是不定式(表示条件)；表语也是不定式(表示结果)： To see is to believe.To work means to earn a living．

另一种情况为主语是以aim，duty，hope, idea，job, plan，problem, purpose，thing，wish等名词为中心的短语，或以what引导的名词性从句，不定式表语对主语起补充说明作用： His aim is to study abroad in the near future．

The most important thing is to negotiate with them about the price． What I want to say is to forget all the unhappy experience． 4)不定式作定语

不定式结构作名词词组修饰语主要有三种类型：

第一种，被修饰的名词词组是不定式的逻辑宾语。例如： There was really nothing to fear．

He gave me an interesting book to read．

如果不定式是不及物动词，后面就得加相应的介词。例如： Mary needs a friend to play with． That girl has nothing to worry about． They have a strict teacher to listen to．

Although the film had been on for ten minutes, I still was not able to find a chair to sit on． 第二种，被修饰的名词词组是不定式的逻辑主语；例如： Have you got a key to unlock the door? The action to be taken is correct．

There is nothing to be gained by pretending．

第三种，被修饰的名词词组是不定式的同位结构。这类名词通常是表示企图、努力、倾向、目的、愿望、is算、能力、意向等意义的名词：ability, attempt, effort, impulse, inclination,wish等。例如： Her daughter will make an even bigger effort to please her． I have no wishto quarrel withyou．

Neither of them had any inclination to do business with Mary.5)不定式作状语

不定式结构在句中作状语通常都能转换为限制性状语从句。例如作原因状语： They are quite surprised to see the great changes taking place in the area．

They are quite surprised because they see the great changes taking place in the area． He was lucky to arrive before dark．

He was lucky because he arrived before dark． 作目的状语：

She raised her voice to be heared better．

She raised her voice so that she could heard better． We went via Heidelberg to miss the traffic jam．

We went via Heidelberg so that we could miss the traffic jam． 作结果状语：

The French football team played so successfully as to defeat the Brazilians．

The French football team played so successfully that they even defeated the Brazilians． He got to the station only to be told the train had gone． He got to the station and was told that the train had gone． 不带to的不定式的使用 动词不定式通常带to，但在有些搭配中不带to，在另一些搭配中可带to可不带to。归纳起来，以下情况下使用不带to不定式：

1)在can／could, /may／might，will／would，shall／should，must, need，dare等情态动词之后，动词不定式不带to。

2)在表示感觉意义的动词，如see，feel，watch，notice，smell，hear，observe等后，或是表示“致使”意义的动词，如have，let，make等后，动词不定式不带to。例如： I often heard him say that he would study hard． I must have him see his own mistakes．

但是，当这类结构转换为被动语态时，后面的不带to不定式一般转换为带to不定式。例如：

He was often heard to say that he would study hard．

After he had finished speaking，he was made to answer innumerable questions． 3)在动词help之后可用不带to的不定式，也可用带to的不定式。例如： Help the old lady(to)carry the heavy box.4)在had better，would rather，may／might as well，rather than，can not but等搭配之后，动词不定式也不带to。例如：

Unless you feel to ill to go out，I would rather not stay at home tonight． She could not but criticize his foolish behaviour.5)在make do，make believe，let drop，1et fall，1et fly，let slip，let drive，let go off，hear say，hear tell，leave go of等固定搭配中，用不带to的动词不定式。例如： They let go of the rope．他们松开了绳子。

John let fly a torrent of abuse at me．约翰朝我痛骂了一顿。I've heard tell of him．我听说过他。

Some of the faculty were let go for lack of the students．由于生源不足,一些教职员工被解雇了。6)在介词but，except之后，如果其前有动词do的某种形式，其后不定式一般不带to，反之则必须带to，表示“不得不，只能”。例如： He will do anything except work on the farm．

There was nothing left for the enemy to do but surrender．

The spy was both hungry and cold；there was nothing left for him but to give in． I had no choice but to wait till it stopped raining． 下面一些短语是固定搭配，不带to：

can not help but，can not choose but，can not but，do nothing but，have nothing to do but。例如： I can not but admire his courage.如果上述句中有do，to省略：

I did nothing but watch TV last night． 如果是下面一个固定搭配，就带to： I have no choice but to give up my idea.7)紧跟在why或why not之后的动词不定式总是不带to。但是，紧跟在who，what，which，whether等连接词后的不定式带to。例如： Why stand up if you can sit down? Why not ask your teacher when you don't understand the meaning? You needn't decide yet whether to study arts or science． 4．不定式的完成式和进行式 1)构成

完成式：to+ have done 进行式：to+ be doing 2)用法

完成式：如果不定式所表示的动作(状态)发生在主要谓语动作之前，那么不定式就要用其完成式。

进行式：如果主要谓语动作(情况)发生时，不定式所表示的动作正在发生，那么不定式就要用其进行式。例如：

She feels relaxed to have finished writing her thesis before the deadline． The Vikings are believed to have discovered America．

When you called me last night, I happened to be working on the computer． 5．不定式的被动形式

当不定式的逻辑主语是动作的承受者时，不定式要用被动形式，包括它的一般式和完成式。例如：

For twelve years, Spanish censorship did not allow Lorca's name to be mentioned and his work to be published．

The snow was supposed to have been blown off the mountain． 6．不定式的否定形式

否定形式是在不定式的标志to前加not。例如： I decided not to ask him again．

Please remember not to leave the lights on when you are out．

第五节 动名词 1．动名词的形式: 动名词是由动词原形+ing构成(如writing)，有完成时态和被动语态(如having written，being written)。

2．动名词的用法

动名词通常在句中作主语和宾语。1)动名词作主语

Going to the college is the little boy's dream．

Keeping studying hard will make you pass the exam． 2)动名词作宾语

有些动词后面只能带动名词作宾语，不能带不定式作宾语。此类动词常见的有：admit，acknowledge，anticipate，appreciate，avoid，consider，contemplate，defer，delay，deny，detest，dislike，ensure，enjoy，escape，excuse，evade，facilitate，fancy，favour，finish，forbid，imagine，include，keep，mind, miss，postpone，practise，resent，resist，risk，suggest，quit，worth等。例如：

John was considering buying a new car.I hope you didn’t contemplate coming with us on this trip． The witness denied having seen the accused man． I would appreciate your keeping it a secret．

3)某些短语后面只能接动名词，不能接不定式。

此类短语常见的有：be(get)used to, be accustomed to, be dedicated to, be devoted to，be busy，be committed to，be suject to，cannot help，cannot resist，cannot stand，confess to，feel like，give up，have trouble(in), have difficulty(in)，have a good／hard time(in)，have fun(in)，have an objection to，it is no good／use，keep on，insist on，look forward to，object to，pay attention to，put off，resort to，succeed in等。例如： I cannot stand getting up early in the morning．

I have no difficulty(in)reaching the top of the mountain.There is no use staying on． I cannot resist(his)bargaining．

Although punctual himself，the professor was quite used to students’being late for his lecture.4)动词或短语后面也可以接动名词的被动形式。用主动形式还是被动形式，要根据句子的意思而定。例如:

Carlos just missed being caught．

That person wore dark glasses to avoid being recognized．

I object to being treated like a child． 3．另一类动词后面可以带动名词做宾语，也可以带不定式作宾语。这类动词又可以分为两种： 1)带动名词作宾语与带不定式作宾语而意义无多大区别的动词

a)在begin，cannot bear，cease，continue，dread，like，love，neglect，omit，prefer，propose等动词之后，如表一般的行为，用动名词作宾语为多；如表示特定的或具体的动作，则用不定式结构作宾语为多。例如：

I don’t like swimming.I don’t like to swim this afternoon．

John prefers doing it his way.John prefers to go outing tomorrow.b)在begin, start等动词之后，如表示有意的动作，用动名词结构为多；如表示无意的动作，用不定式结构为多。例如：

After some hesitation，he began speaking out his own opinion． It has already begun to rain．

c)在attempt，intend，plan等动词之后，用不定式结构与用动名词结构意义相同，但以用不定式较为常见。例如：

He intended to buy a new car．

He intended travelling abroad next summer.d)在encourage，permit，allow，recommend，advise，authorise等动词之后，一般用动名词作宾语，或者用不定式作宾语补足语。即：

encourage／permit／allow／recommend／advise／authorise+doing，或encourage／permit／allow／recommend／advise／authorise+somebody+to do。例如： He advised going out for a walk．

He advised us to go out for a walk．

e)在agree，decide等动词之后，可以直接跟不定式结构，但如果跟动名词，则动词后必须加适当的介词。例如：

He agreed to do me a favor．= He agreed on doing me a favor． In the end the manager decided to double the advertising budget．= In the end the manager decided on doubling the advertising budget．

f)在need，want，require, deserve等动词之后，可以用动名词的主动形式表示被动意义，这相当于用不定式的被动形式。例如：

The house needs repairing.= The house needs to be repaired.The disabled deserve respecting.= The disabled deserve to be respected． 2)带动名词作宾语与带不定式作宾语而意义不同的动词

a)动词remember，forget后可以跟不定式或动名词，但意义有明显区别：跟动名词，其动作发生在“记得”或“忘记”的动作之前；跟不定式，其动作发生在“记得”或“忘记”的动作之后。试比较：

I remember posting this letter．我记得这封信已经寄出了。

I remember to post this letter in the afternoon.我记得下午要将这封信寄走。b)动词regret后可以跟不定式或动名词，但意义有明显区别： regret doing：为做过的事感到抱歉 regret to do：为即将要做的事感到抱歉

试比较：I regret to say that I can not go with you after school．

I regret having criticized you seriously in class． c)动词try，mean，can not help，used to后跟不定式还是动名词，取决于这些动词本身的含义。例如：

You should try to answer the questions by yourself．(try to do：设法或努力去做)We try using this new method．(try doing：试着做某事)I meant to go to the exhibition but I forgot．(mean to do：is算做某事)Success means working very，very hard．(mean doing：意味着做某事)I can't help apologizing．(can not help doing：忍不住做某事)I can't help to apologize for him.(can not help to do：不能帮助做某事)Mr．Smith used to jog in the morning，but now he has stopped．(used to do：过去经常或总是干某事)Inland canals are used to ship farm and factory goods to nearby towns．(be used to do：被用来干某事)I am not used to getting up early in the morning．(be／get used to doing：

习惯于干某事)d)动词stop，continue，go on，leaveoff之后，通常用动名词结构作宾语；如果用不定式结构，则不是宾语而是目的状语，相当于in order to。试比较： They stopped working．他们停止工作(来做其他事)。They stopped to work。他们停止(做其他事)来工作。

The students went on reciting the text．学生们继续背诵课文。

The students went on to recite the text．学生们停下其他事，继续背诵课文。She let off doing the housework．她停止做家务(去干其他事)。She let off to do the housework．她停止(干其他事)来做家务。动名词的逻辑主语问题

动名词，顾名思义，具有名词的特点，即可以加物主代词和名词的属格来表示其逻辑(这时动名词的逻辑主语与句子主语不一致)。如果动名词的逻辑主语就是句子主语，不用加物主代词或名词的属格。例如：

The watchman reported finding the door open．= The watchman reported that he had found the door open．

此处，finding的主语与主句主语一致，都是the watchman，所以finding前不加物主代词。I appreciated very much your helping me through the tough period.此处，helping的主语是you，而主句的主语是I，两者不一致，所以helping前的物主代词your不能省略。

一般说来，能带动名词作宾语的动词都可以根据语义意图在动名词之前加上或略去主语。但有些动词，如excuse，forgive，pardon等，其后的动名词结构总是带有逻辑主语。这些逻辑主语通常由名词或代词宾格表示，也可由名词属格或形容词性物主代词表示。I do mind people smoking in public places．(名词宾格作逻辑主语)We don't understand him needing so much money．(代词宾格作逻辑主语)I will never forgive his betraying me by breaking his promise．(物主代词作逻辑主语)Mary excused the boy’s upsetting the ink．(名词属格作逻辑主语)

第六节分词

1．分词的形式

这里所讲的分词包括-ing分词和-ed分词，即传统意义上的现在分词和过去分词。现在分词由动词原形+-ing构成(如listening)；过去分词通常由动词原形+-ed构成(如listened)，但也有不规则形式(如go-gone)。现代英语的绝大多数都是规则动词，不规则的只是少数。2．分词的基本用法

分词在句中通常可以用作表语、定语、补语和状语。下面按照现在分词和过去分词的用法分别作介绍。

现在分词的基本用法：

现在分词表示主动的意义；表示一般性的或正在进行的动作；在表现形式上有“一般式”和“完成式”与“主动式”和“被动式”之分，1)作表语

现在分词作表语通常表示主语所具有的特征。例如： This story is quite interesting．

The journey without you will be boring． 2)作定语

现在分词可以单独作定语，也可以构成合成词作定语，但在更多情况下是分词短语作定语，包括限定性和非限定性(用逗号与其他部分分开)，在意义上相当于一个定语从句。现在分词作定语通常带有主动意义和未完成意义。例如：

The man following was obviously in a hurry．(现在分词单独作定语)They acted just like a conquering army．(现在分词单独作定语)Do you know the man standing over there by the door?(分词短语作限定性定语)Last night，we caught a thief stealing John’s bike．(分词短语作限定性定语)The name Nebraske comes from the Oto Indian word “ebrathka”，meaning flat water．(分词短语作非限定性定语)3)作宾语补足语 a．表示感觉和心理状态的动词，如hear，feel，find，listen to，look at，watch，notice，observe，smell，see等词的宾语可以用现在分词作宾语补足语。例如： I noticed him slipping away before the end of the meeting． I can smell turkey roasting，and it's making me hungry．

b．表示“致使”等意义的动词，如catch，get，have，keep，leave，set等词的宾语可以用现在分词作宾语补足语。例如：

What I saw just now set me thinking of my childhood in the countryside． Please don't keep the machine running while you are away． 4)作状语

现在分词作状语表示主语在进行一动作的同时所进行的另一动作，它对谓语动词起修饰或陪衬的作用。这时要注意现在分词与其逻辑主语在时态和意义上的统一。例如： Rushing out of the room，he was knocked down by a car．(作时间状语)= When he rushed out of the room，he was knocked down by a car． Working harder，you will pass the entrance exam.(作条件状语)= If you work harder，you will pass the entrance exam． She sat at a window，reading a book．(作伴随状语)=She sat at a window and read a book．

Having won the championship，he was awarded a million dollars．(作原因状语)= Because he had won the championship，he was awarded a million dollars． Even if taking a taxi，I will still be late for the meeting．(作让步状语)= Even if take a taxi，I will still be late for the meeting．

The road is under construction，thus causing the delay．

(作结果状语)= The road is under construction，and thus caused the delay.注意，当现在分词作让步状语时，一般放在句首，常常由although，though，even if, unless等连词引入；作结果状语时，一般放在句末，前面可以加so，thus，hence，thereby等副词。过去分词的基本用法：

与现在分词不同，过去分词表示被动的意义，表示已经完成和被动的动作。在表现形式上，只有一种形式。1)作表语

过去分词作表语表示主浯所处的状态。用作表浯的过去分词大多来自及物动词；不及物动词的过去分词能作表语的只限于少数表示位置转移的动词，如go，come，assemble等，它们用在连系动词之后，表示完成意义，无被动意义。例如： The man looked quite disappointed． He is greatly discouraged by her refusal． His hair is nearly all gone.已经形容词化了的过去分词大多可作表语，常见的有：accomplished，amazed，amused，astonished，broken，closed，completed，complicatcd，confused，crowded，devoted，disappointed，discouraged，drunk，excited，frightened，hurt，interested，lost，satisfied，surprised, worried等。做定语

a)前置定语的过去分词通常来自及物动词，带有被动意义和完成意义。例如： We like skating in the frozen lake in the winter．

= We like skating in the lake which has been frozen in the winter． How many finished products have you got up to now? = How many products that have been finished have you got up to now? 来自不及物动词的过去分词很少能单独用作前置定语，能作这样用的仅限以下几个词，这时仅表示完成意义，不表示被动意义： a retired worker = a worker who has retired

an escaped prisoner = a prisoner who has escaped a faded／withered flower = a flower that has faded the risen sun = the sun that has just risen a returned student = a student who has returned vanished treasure = treasure that has vanished b)用作后置定语的过去分词通常也来自及物动词，表示被动意义和完成意义。这时相当于一个定语从句。例如：

Things seen are better than things heard．

= Things which are seen are better than things which are heard． The lobster broiled over charcoal was delicious．

= The lobster which was broiled over charcoal was delicious.做宾语补足语

a)see, hear, feel，find，think等表示感觉和心理状态的动词可以带过去分词作宾语补足语。例如：

Tom found himself involved in an awkward situation． I saw Tom dressed like a beggar in the street．

Everybody thought the match lost until the last minute.d)make, get, have, keep 等表示“致使”意义的动词可以带过去分词作宾语补足语。例如： I have my clothes washed everyday.Don't get your schedule changed；stay with us in the class． He’s trying to make himself understood.Please keep us informed of the latest price．

c)like，want，wish，order等表示希望、要求、命令等意义的动词可以带过去分词作宾语补足语。例如：

We don't like such topics(to be)discussed in class． I wish this problem(to be)solved this week． 4)作状语

用作状语的过去分词通常来自及物动词。过去分词用作状语时，修饰主句的谓语动词，意义上相当于状语从句，表示时间、条件、原因、伴随状况等。过去分词作状语，前边往往可以加when, while, if，as if, though。一般说来，这种结构的逻辑主语必须与主句的主语一致。例如：

Whenever praised，she blushes．(作时间状语)= Whenever she is praised，she blushes．

United，we stand；divided，we fall．(作条件状语)= If we are united，we stand；If we are divided，we fall． Written in great haste，this book is full of errors．(作原因状语)= Because this book is written in great haste，it is full of errors．

Mary was reading a love story，completely lost to the romantic life．(作伴随状浯)= Mary was reading a love story，and was completely lost to the romantic life.Although born in Germany，John lives and works in U.S.A.(作让步状语)= Although John was born in Germany，he lives and works in U.S.A.3．分词的完成式及被动式

前面提到过，过去分词只有一种形式，所以这里所讲的完成式及被动式均指现在分词的完成式及被动式。

如果现在分词表示的是一般性动作，不表明动作的先后或与谓语动作同时发生，这时要用现在分词的一般形式。例如：

Living in the downtown，we found a lot of amusements． 如果现在分词所表示的动作先于句子谓语发生，就要用现在分词的完成式“(not)having+过去分词”。例如：

Having heard from my father，I was relieved．

Not having received any letter from my family，I was worried．

如果现在分词的逻辑主语是现在分词所表示的动作的对象，则要用现在分词的被动形式，包括其一般形式“(not)being+过去分词”和其完成形式“(not)having been+过去分词”。例如： Upon being questioned，he denied having robbed the bank．

The new method，having been widely used abroad，can increase the working efficiency.4．分词独立结构

如果过去分词或现在分词带有与句子主语不同的主语，这就构成了独立结构，也叫独立主格结构或垂悬结构，通常在句中起状语丛句的作用，表示原因、时间、条件、方式或伴随状况。例如：

The holidays being over，they began to get down to do their work again．(原因状语)= As the holiday was over，they began to get down to do their work again． All things considered，her paper is of greater value than yours．(条件状语)= All things are considered，her paper is of greater value than yours． His homework done，Johan went out to play.(时间状语)= After his homework had been done，Johan went out to play．

The girl was smiling sweetly，her long hair flowing in the breeze．(伴随状语)当独立结构表示伴随状况时，可变为由with引导的介词词组, 而表示否定意义的类似结构便可由without引导。例如上例可变为：

The girl was smiling sweetly with her long hair flowing in the breeze． Without anyone noticing，I slipped out of the room．

独立结构的位置比较灵活，它可以置于句首、句中或句末。另外，独立结构中用作主语的名词之前的限定词有时可以省略。例如：

The manager sat quietly in his office，(his)eyes closed．

He stood in the doorway，(his)wet cloak dripping water on the rug，and waited for some sign of recognition．

第七节

前后呼应 主谓一致的基本原则

主谓一致有以下三条原则：

1)语法一致原则，即在语法形式上取得一致。例如，主语是单数形式，谓语动词也采取单数形式；主语是复数形式，谓语动词也采取复数形式。例如：The students are very young．This picture looks beautiful．

2)意义一致原则，即从意义着眼处理一致关系。例如，主语形式虽是单数但意义是复数，谓语动词也采取复数形式；而有些主语形式虽是复数但意义上看作单数，谓语动词也采取单数形式。

The people in that country are fighting for independence． The crowd deeply respect their leader．

Three years in a strange land seems a long time．

3)就近原则，即谓语动词的单数或复数形式取决于最靠近它的词语。例如： Neither he nor I am going to see the film tonight because we are busy． 2．主谓一致的用法

根据以上三条原则，主谓一致有如下用法： 1)下列结构作主语，谓语动词一般用单数形式

a．表示时间、重量、长度、价值的名词作主语，谓语动词通常用单数形式。例如： Two hundred miles is a long distance． Ten dollars is a high price for that book． b．由anyone，anything，anybody，no one，nothing，everyone，everybody，everything，someone，somebody，each，either，neither等不定代词作主语，谓语动词使用单数形式。例如： Someone is knocking at the door．

Anything is better than going to the movie tonight．

c．由“a series of，a kind of，a portion of +名词”作主语，谓语动词应用单数形式。例如： A series of debates is scheduled to be held next week．

d．由“many a，more than one +单数名词”作主语，尽管意义上表示复数，但谓语动词仍采用单数形式。例如：

Many a person in these circumstances has hoped for a long break． There is more than one answer to your question． e．“名词+and+名词”作主语，表示同一人、同一概念或事物时，谓语动词用单数形式。例如：

A writer and educator is giving a lecture now．(这个人既是作家又是教育家)f．“either(neither)+ of +复数名词(或代词)”作主语，谓语动词用单数形式。例如： If either of you takes a vacation now，we will not be able to finish the work． Neither of them wants to come．

g．在each„and each„，every„and every„等结构之后，谓语动词用单数形式。例如： Each man and each woman has the right to vote．

h．动词不定式、动名词或分句作主语时，谓语动词一般用单数形式。例如： What I want to say is none of your business． Listening to the classical music is enjoyable．

i．以-ics结尾的复数名词指一门学科时，如politics(政治学)，mathematics(数学)，statistics(统计学)，acoustics(声学)，linguistics(语言学)等，谓语动词用单数形式。例如： Mathematics is what he majors in． 2)下列结构作主语，谓语动词单复数形式取决于of后的名词。

a．由“a11，none，no，most，half，the last，the rest，the remainder+of+名词”等不定代词作主语，谓语动词单复数形式由of后名词的单复数而定。例如： None of the food is wasted．

None of the students were absent． The rest of the lecture was dull．

The rest of the bikes were on sale yesterday．

b．由“lots of，heaps of，loads Of，scads of +名词”作主语，谓语动词单复数形式由of后名词的单复数而定。例如：

Lots of work is to be done this week.Lots of people are going to swim this afternoon． There is loads of milk on the farm．

There are loads of big red apples on the ground． There is heaps of fun．

c．由“分数或百分数十of +名词或代词”作主语，谓语动词的单复数形式取决于of后名词或代词的单复数形式。例如：

Three-quarters of the area is cultivated.Ninety percent of the students have passed the exam．

3)下列结构作主语，谓语动词的单复数形式根据意义而定。

a．由“the+形容词” 这种结构作主语，根据意义一致的原则决定谓语动词的单复数形式。如果表示一类人(如the rich，the poor，the blind，the deaf，the sick，the young，the old)，谓语动词用复数形式；如果表示个人或抽象概念，谓语动词用单数形式。例如： The blind are taught trades in special schools．

(表示一类人)The good in him overweighs the bad．

(表示抽象概念)The departed was a good friend of his．

(表示个人)b．family，crowd，committee，class，audience，group，government，team，public，majority，minority等集合名词作主语，谓语动词单复数形式应根据意义而定。例如： The family like to listen to the music．(the family指这家人，用作复数)The family is small．(the family指这个家庭，用作单数)The committee has considered your proposal．(the committee指委员会，用作单数)The committee were arguing for an hour before they gave their votes．

(the committee指委员会的委员们，用作复数)下列结构作主语，谓语动词一般单复数均可。

a.以数词为名词词组中心词作主语时，谓语动词一般单复数均可。例如： Five and six make／makes eleven． Seven times ten are seventy．

但是：Twenty from thirty leaves ten．

Six sevens are forty-two.b．由”one in／out of +名词”作主语，谓语动词单复数均可。例如： One in ten were／was present．

下列结构作主语，谓语动词用复数形式。

由and或both„and连接两个单数形式的名词词组作主语时，一般谓语动词用复数形式。例如：

A girl and a boy want to go． Both rice and wheat are grown in that country．

6)下列结构作主语，谓语动词单复数形式视具体情况而定。

a．由as well as，together with，besides, like，along with，with but，except，accompanied by，rather than，including连接两个名词作主语，谓语单复数形式应由连接词前的名词而定。例如： The president of the college，together with the deans，is planning a conference for the purpose of laying down certain regulations．

The young mother with her two children is coming now．

The plant manager，like many technicians，is experienced in designing new products． b．“名词+of+名词”作主语，谓语动词单复数形式跟of前的名词一致。例如： The picture of the children brings back many memories of my past experiences． The effects of cigarette smoking have been proved to be extremely harmful．

c．由not only„but also，either„or，neither„nor或or连接的并列主语，通常根据就近一致原则，谓语动词的单复数形式由最接近它的名词词组的单复数形式决定。例如： He or you have taken my pen．

Neither the students nor the teacher knows anything about it． One or two days are enough to visit the city.d．there be句型中的谓语动词单复数形式一般取决于其后的真正主语的单复数形式。例如： There is a garden in front of the house． There are two things I'd like to say here． 7)关于几对容易混淆词组的一致用法

a．由“this／that kind／type of +名词”作主语，谓语动词用单数形式；而由”these／those kind／type of +复数名词”作主语，谓语动词用复数形式。例如： This kind of apples is highly priced． Those kind(s)of tests are good．

b．由“a number of，a total of，an average of +复数名词”作主语，谓语动词用复数形式；由“the number of，the total of，the average of +复数名词”作主语，谓语动词用单数形式。例如： A number of students are waiting for the bus．

The number of the students in this university is increasing yearly.c．one of，the(only)one of的一致用法

This is one of the books that have been recommended．

This is the(only)one of the books that has been recommended． 3．前后呼应的用法 1)当everyone，everybody，no one，nobody，anyone，anybody，someone，somebody，everything，anything，something，nothing等用作主语时，其相应的代词一般用单数形式。例如： If anybody calls，tell him that I'm out． Something strange happened，didn't it? Every passenger has to carry his own luggage．

2)人称代词与名词的呼应：人称代词I(me)，he(him)，she(her)，it(it)都是代替前面的单数名词，而they(them)，we(us)则是代替复数名词的，you既可以代表单数，也可以代表复数。但表示泛指的时候，用he或one来表示。例如：

If a young person enters a classical music field only for money，he is in the wrong profession． The leaves of the red maple are highly poisonous to horses and when ingested can kill them within fifteen hours。

3)物主代词与名词的呼应：my，our，his，her，its，their要与代替的名词在数上一致。例如： The welfare department，as well as the other social services，will have its budget cut． Delphins are warm-blooded；that is，their body temperature always stays about the same，regardless of the surroundings．

4)反身代词与其所代成分间的呼应。

Many primitive people believed that by eating an animal they could get some of the good qualities of that animal for themselves.Everybody clings to this illusion about himself． I have just been out to get myself a cup of tea． 5)指示代词与所代名词间的呼应：this和that指代单数名词或不可数名词，these和those指代复数名词(those还可以用作先行词，引导定语从句，表示“那些人”)。例如： She invited all those who had been her former colleagues．

The amount of the pressure caused by the weight of a column of fluid is determined by the height of this column．

6)much和much of后接不可数名词，而many和many of后接可数名词的复数。例如： There is not much coal left．

A great many of the houses were knocked down by the earthquake． 7)表示量的词后面有的接可数名词，有的接不可数名词。接可数名词的有：a number of，a range of，a series of十复数名词；接不可数名词的有：a great deal of，an amount of十不可数名词；既可接可数又可接不可数名词的有：a lot of，a variety of。例如： The government attached a great deal of importance to education． Quite a number of women applied for this job． The college library has a variety of books． An apple is a variety of fruit．

A wide range of disorders can affect the human muscular system．

第八节．反意疑问句 1.反意疑问句的形式

反意疑问句一般有以下四种形式： 肯定陈述句+否定反意疑问。例如： This pencil is red，isn't it?

否定陈述句+肯定反意疑问。例如： This pencil isn't red，is it?

肯定陈述句+肯定反意疑问。例如：

This pencil is red，is it? 否定陈述句+否定反意疑问。例如： This pencil isn't red，isn't it? 前两种形式是主要的，后两种不常见。

2.反意疑问句的用法

1)当陈述部分是there be句型时，反意疑问部分的主语用there。例如： There aren’t a lot of flowers in the garden in winter，are there?

There existed different opinions on this issue，didn’t there?

2)当陈述部分是以不定代词one作主语时，反意疑问部分的主语在正式场合用one，在非正式场合用you。例如：

One cannot succeed at this，can one?

One cannot succeed at this，can you? 3)当陈述部分是I’m„结构时，反意疑问部分一般用aren't I。例如： I am a student，aren’t I? 4)当陈述部分是一个带有that引导的宾语从句的复合结构时，反意疑问部分一般根据主句的主语和谓语动词而定。例如：

You told me(that)I had passed the exam，didn’t you? He says that everybody in our class will attend the meeting，doesn’t he? 但是，当陈述部分的主句是I think，I suppose，I believe等结构时，反意疑问部分则往往由that从句中的主语和谓语动词决定，并且要注意否定的转移。例如： I believe(that)it is going to rain，isn’t it?

I don't think(that)he will come，will he? 5)当陈述部分的谓语动词是have时，反意疑问部分要根据have的意义及形式而定。

a．当have表示“所有”含义时，反意疑问可以用have形式，也可以用do形式。例如： He has a book in his hand，hasn't he? He has a book in his hand，doesn’t he? b．当陈述部分的动词是have的否定形式时，反意疑问部分是用have形式还是用do形式，取决于陈述部分的动词形式。例如： You haven't a car，have you? You don't have any money with you，do you? c．当have不表示“所有”含义而表示其他含义时，反意疑问句则必须用do的形式。例如： We had a good time in the vacation，didn’t we? He has his breakfast at seven everyday，doesn’t he? You have to get up early tomorrow，don’t you? 6)当陈述部分带有never，nothing，nowhere，seldom，hardly，rarely，few，little等否定词或半否定词时，反意疑问部分的动词用肯定形式。例如：

The summit meeting never took place，did it? You can hardly believe what he said，can you? There is little ink in the bottle，is there? Few people know this place，do they? 当陈述部分的谓语动词是带有un-，in-，im-，dis-等否定前缀的动词，则仍然把陈述部分看作肯定句，那么反意疑问部分用否定形式。例如：

He is impolite to the teacher，isn’t he? He distrusted anybody around him，didn’t he? 当陈述部分带有情态动词ought to时，反意疑问部分在英式英语中用ought to形式，在美式英语中用should形式。例如：

You ought to see the new picture，shouldn’t you? Teachers ought to be honoured，oughtn’t they? 8)当陈述部分带有情态动词used to时，反意疑问部分可以用used to形式，也可以用did形式。例如：

She used to live abroad，usedn’t she? There used to be a news stand in the corner of the street，didn’t there? 当陈述部分带有情态动词must时，反意疑问部分需视must的含义而定。a．当must表示“命令或强制”时，反意疑问部分用mustn't。例如： You must do it by yourself，mustn’t you? b．当must表示“有必要”时，反意疑问部分用needn't。例如： You must see him tonight，needn’t you? c．当must表示“一定”或“想必”等推测意义时，反意疑问部分不用mustn't，而要根据must后的动词形式而定。例如： He must be crazy to do so，isn’t he? She must have been there for a long time，hasn’t she? They must have stayed at home last night，didn’t they? 10)当陈述部分带有need时，反意疑问部分需视need的含义而定。如果need用作情态动词，则反意疑问部分用need形式；如果need用作实义动词，表示“需要”，则反意疑问部分用do形式。例如：

You needn't go there，need you? She needs to go there，doesn’t she? Plants need sun to grow，don’t they? 11)当陈述部分带有I'd better或I’d rather时，反意疑问部分用hadn't或wouldn't。例如 ： You'd better finish the task before tomorrow，hadn’t you? He’d rather stay with us，wouldn't he? 12)当陈述部分是祈使句时，反意疑问部分一般用will you，won't you，would you。例如： Don't be too late，will you? Close the door，won’t you? Come here，will you?

Open your books，would you? 12)陈述部分是以Let’s开头的祈使句时，反意疑问部分用shall we；若是以Let us开头的祈使句，反意疑问部分则用will you。例如： Let’s have a party tonight，shall we? Let us have a look at your pictures，will you? 注意, 如果祈使句是否定形式，那么反意疑问句只能用will you。例如： Don't forget to bring your notebooks here tomorrow，will you?

第九节

强调句

这里讲的强调句主要是以it为引导词的分裂句。它的结构形式是：It+be的一定形式+被强调成分+ that-／who-分句(只有当被强调成分是句子的人称主语时，连接词才可以用who，此时也可以用that：其余情况下只能用that)。通过这种结构可以强调除谓语动词外的大多数句子成分。例如：

It was Mary that／who needed the cash． It was the cash that Mary needed．

It was from Henry that John bought the car． It was the car that John bought from Henry．

此结构可以强调多种多样的状语成分，例如强调时间状语、地点状语、方式状语，也可以强调由because引导的原因状语分句，但不可以强调由since／as引导的原因状语分句，也不可以强调由although和whereas引导的从属或并列分句。例如：

It was before liberation that our people suffered from the imperialist aggression． It is in Iran that the family members participate in the wedding preparations． It was because he'd never had the opportunity that John hadn't learned to drive．

如果要强调谓语动词，通常采用另一种句型：主语通常是由what引导的名词性分句；分句的主动词通常是do的一定形式；主语补语通常是不定式结构，可带to，也可不带to。例如： The pupils elected him monitor of the class。强调谓语动词elected，变为：

What the pupils did was elect／to elect him monitor of the class．

第十节

虚拟语气

虚拟语气是说话人为表示一种假设的情况或一种主观的愿望，即认为动词所表示的动作或状态并非事实或主观设想时所用的语气。

虚拟语气的形式与用法：

1．有一类虚拟语气的形式称为be型虚拟式，即不管主语是什么人称，动词一律用原形(或should+动词原形)。

以下几种情况必须用be型虚拟式：

1)一些表示命令，要求，决定，建议等概念的动词后由that引导的宾语从句中，必须用be型虚拟式。这类动词有：ask(要求)，advise(建议)，command(命令)，decide(决定)，demand(命令)，insist(坚持)，move(提议)，order(命令)，propose(提议)，recommend(建议)，request(要求)，require(要求)，suggest(建议)，urge(极力主张)。例如： We strongly suggest that he(should)be told about it earlier． The doctor insisted that his patient take it easy for three months． I require that they come by ten．

I recommended that each competitor receive $100． The judge ordered that the witness tell the truth．

2)一些表示主张、要求、命令、愿望、建议等概念后的主语从句中，必须用be型虚拟式。此类词主要有：

It is necessary, essential(重要的)，advisable(应该的)，appropriate(合适的)，desirable(值得的)，fitting(合适的)，important(重要的), imperative(必须的)，obligatory(必须的)，proper(适当的)，strange(奇怪的)，urgent(紧要的)，vital(极重要的)that„；

It is(was, has been)suggested(decided，desired，ordered，proposed，requested)that„ 例如： It is highly desirable that a new president be appointed．

It is important that everybody have his health checked yearly． I think it advisable that he leave soon.It is decided that you be the first one to do the experiment．

3)一些表示主张、要求、命令等概念的名词后面由that引导的同位语从句中，通常用be型虚拟式。这类词主要有：advice，command，importance，idea，insistence，motion(提议)，necessity，order，plan，proposal(建议)，recommendation(建议)，request，requirement, resolution(决议)，suggestion，understanding(协议)。例如：

My suggestion is that he be sent to help this group．

4)在lest，for fear that或in case表示“生怕，以防万一，免得”引导的从句中，从句常常用should。例如：

He studied day and night，lest he should fail in the test．

We dare not play jokes on him for fear that he should become angry． Be quiet in case you should wake the baby．

5)某些表示祝愿、诅咒、禁止等的语句中用be型虚拟式。例如： God bless you!God damn you!Long live Chairman Mao!Heaven forbid!2．下列两种句型，从句总是用一般过去式表示虚拟语气。

1)It is(high)time that(该做„„，必须做„„)，丛句用一般过去时。例如： It is time that he went to bed now．

It is high time that this wrong spending was checked．

2)would rather, would sooner, had rather这些表示“宁愿”的短语后面的从句中的谓语动词应使用一般过去时表示虚拟语气。例如：

Don't come today．1 would rather you came tomorrow． He had rather his children didn’t make so much noise． I would sooner we had dinner now．

3．If引导的条件状语从句的虚拟语气用法 If引导的从句的虚拟语气主要有三种结构：

1)与现在情况相反：主句谓语用“would／could／might +动词原形”，从句谓浯用“动词的一般过去式”(be的过去式一律用were)。例如： If I had time，I would go with you．

If I were you，I might refuse the engagement．

2)与过去情况相反：主句谓语用“would／could + havedone'’，从句渭语用“动词的过去完成式”。例如：

If I hadn’t lost my way，I would have caught the last train． They would have arrived earlier if there had been no storm．

3)与将来情况相反：主句谓语用”would／could／might +动词原形”，从句谓语用"were to／should+动词原形”。例如：

If you were to see Mary，what would you tell her? If I were to do it，I would do it in a different way． If it should rain tomorrow，I would stay at home． 4)省略if的虚拟语气句。

虚拟条件从句中的谓语动词如果是were，should，had等词时，可以省略连词if, 但必须将were，should，had等词移至主浯前形成句子倒装。例如：

Had he been given some information about it, he could have answered the question． Were you to get up earlier，you wouldn’t be late． 4．Wish后的宾语从句中的虚拟语气用法

动词wish后跟由that引导的宾语从句(that经常被省略)要用虚拟浯气表示一种不可实现的愿望。

1)宾语从句用过去式表示与现在事实相反。例如： I wish I had enough time to finish my homework today．

My brother is in Europe on vacation，but I wish he were here with me． 2)宾浯从句用过去完成时表示与过去事实相反。例如： I wish 1 had gone to the movies with you last night． I wish Professor Lee had taught me this equation． 3)宾语从句用“would/could +动词原型”表示一种愿望或要求。例如：I wish that you would come next time．

She wishes that you could stay here longer．

5．由as if／as though引导的状语从句表示方式时，意思是“好像”，这时从句中的谓语动词应用虚拟语气。

1)状语从句用过去式(be用were的形式)表示与现在的事实相反。例如： He treats me as if I were a stranger．

2)状语从句用过去完成式表示与过去的事实相反。例如：

He talked as if he had been to Australia.6.介词或介词短语表示虚拟：有时假设的情况并不以条件从句表示出来，而是通过一个介词或介词短语来表示，或通过上下文表示出来。如but for，but that，with，without，otherwise，on condition(that)，in case of，supposing，on the understanding that等表示让步假设。例如： If I hadn’t got your help，I wouldn't have found my present job． = Without your help，I wouldn't have found my present job． = But for your help，1 wouldn't have found my present job．

= But that you helped me，I wouldn't have found my present job．

7.错综虚拟条件句：一般来说，主句和从句的谓语动词形式应前后呼应。但是有时主句和从句的动作发生的时间不一致，谓语动词的形式应作相应的调整，如：从句用过去虚拟语气，主句用现在虚拟语气(通常可以根据时间状语而定)。

Had it not been for the timely investment from the general public，our company would not be so thriving as it is．

If Paul had receivd six more votes in the last election，he would be our chairman now． If you had studied the problem carefully yesterday，you would not find any difficulty now.8．此外，还有省略了结果主句的虚拟语气if only结构，一般表示愿望。if only从句中的时态有三种：V+ed；be用were；情态动词用could／would／might+v。例如： If only he saw me now!要是他现在能看到我那该多好!If only she had not been married!要是她没有结过婚就好了!If only the committee would approve the regulations and put them into

第十一节、倒

装

倒装(inversion)是一种语法手段，用以表示一定句子结构的需要和强调某一句子成分的需要。英语的最基本的结构是主、谓结构，倒装就是将这种比较固定的词序加以颠倒。倒装有两种。将主语和谓语完全颠倒过来，叫做完全倒装(complete inversion)。如： How goes the time? Then began a bitter war between the two countries.于是两国之间开始了恶战。只将助动词(包括情态动词)移至主语之前，叫做部分倒装。如： At no time was the entrance left unguarded．

Seldom have we felt as comfortable as here．我们难得像在这里这么舒服。句子结构需要的倒装。为了句子结构的需要而进行倒装的情况有下列几种。1)疑问句。如：

Are you from here? Who was that? 2)祝愿句。如： Long live peace!May you succeed!So be it．就这样吧。3)某些感叹句。如：

There goes the bell．打铃了。Here comes the bus!Judith，how lovely are you![注]由副词there和here引导的倒装感叹句不可用人称代词，如不可说 Here comes he.而须说Here he comes。4)There+be结构。如：

There lived an old peasant in that house．

There seems to be some misunderstanding about the matter． 5)其直接引语位于句首的陈述句。如： “It’s too late，” said Millian．

“ This is the house where Shakespeare was born，”said George．

6)地点状语位于句首、主语为名词而谓语为不及物动词的陈述句。如： From the window came sound of music． 7)某些条件从句。如： Had I the time, I would go．

Were you in my position，you would do the same． She’ll be sixteen come May．到5月她就16岁了。

All right，if stay you must，go and sit down properly over there． 好吧，如你必须留下，那你就在那里坐好。8)某些让步从句。如：

Look as I would up and down，I could see no human being．我尽管望上望下，还是看不到一个人。

Toil as he would，he might fall，and go down and be destroyed!他尽管苦干，还是可能失败、沉沦而被毁灭!Change your mind as you will，you will gain no additional support．你即使改变主意，也不会再得到援助。

9)代词so，neither，nor等副词置于句首时，全句常需倒装。如： If you can do it，so can I． If you don't go，neither shall I.I don't know，nor do I care．

10)Never，seldom，little，nor，hardly，scarcely，no sooner，not only等表否定的副词或连词位于句首时，全句需要倒装。如：

Never in my life have I seen such a thing． Seldom have we felt as comfortable as here． No sooner had he arrived than he fell ill.Scarcely had he arrived when they asked him to leave again．他刚一到来，他们就又请他离去。Not only did he hear it，but he saw it as well．

11)only位于句首并后跟状语时，全句需要倒装。如： Only then did he understand.只有那时，他才明白。由only引导的从句位于句首时，主语亦应倒装。如：

Only when she came home did he learn the news．只有当她回家时他才知道这消息。12)主语部分较长需要后置时，全句需要倒装。如： They erect a bronze tablet on which is carved“The Yellow River Source”.他们立了一面铜牌，上面写着“黄河之源”。(on which…是倒装结构)To this class belongs the most astonishing work that the author accomplished． 属于这一类的有作者所完成的一部最惊人的著作。

Sitting at her desk in deep concentration was my sister Flora．She looked as though she had spend a sleepless night．我妹妹弗洛拉伏案沉思，好像一夜未睡似的。(后一句意义上相等于从句)13)为了上下文的衔接，全句需要倒装。如： “Now，I have no opinion of that policy．” “我可对这项政策没有好感。” “I sure have，”came a sarcastic gravelly growl from the admiral．“我当然有啰，”这是发自海军将军的讥讽而粗哑的咆哮声。(用came．．．admiral倒装结构是为了和上文相衔接)The girl who loves him so deeply finds herself unable to forgive his mistake．Around this point develops the sketch，which is humorous and full of a strong local flavor．那个钟爱他的姑娘觉得她不能饶恕他的错误。围绕这一点就写成了这一短剧，它不但幽默，而且充满了浓郁的地方风味。(第二句倒装。显然由于句首around this point与上文衔接的缘故)强调需要的倒装

这是为了强调某一句子成分而进行的倒装。这种倒装大致有下列几种。1)谓语置于句首。

a)谓语动词置于句首。如：

I’m going back to Washington to fight for it, believe you me．我要回到华盛顿为此而斗争，你相信我吧。(强调believe)At last he finds himself in a garden，full of beautiful flowers of strange forms，and watered by streams of crystal in which are swimming marvellous fish with scales of rubies and gold．他终于发现自己来到一个花园，这里到处是奇异的花卉，还有那清澈的溪水，里面游着珍贵的具有红玉般和金黄色的鱼鳞的鱼。(这里将谓语are swimming前置也是由于主语较长之故)有时倒装结构为主要动词+主语+助动词。如： Go I can't．我不能去。(强调主要动词go)Yield he would not．屈服他是不干的。(强调主要动词yield)有时倒装结构为主要动词+宾语+主语+助动词，其主要动词 往往是重复前文中的动词。如：

They have promised to finish the work and finish it they will．他们保证完成这项工作，而且他们一定会完成的。(强调主要动词finish)Save him she could not；but she avenged him in the most terrible fashion afterwards．她不能救他，但后来她以最可怕的方式为他报了仇。

(此句中的倒装结构强调主要动词save，其上文虽无save一词，但有与其类似的动词)有时倒装结构为助动词+主语+(主要动词)，如：

John was taken completely by surprise by the news, as was Susan．这消息完全出乎约翰的意料，也完全出乎苏珊的意料。

(as后的助动词was置于主语之前，是为强调主语；省去了主要动词)They looked upon him as a trusted friend，as did many others he had deceived． 他们和他所欺骗的许多人一样，也把他看作可以信赖的朋友。(替代词did置于主语之前以强调主语，省去了主要动词)b)过去分词置于句首。如：

Also discussed was a revenue-raising proposal to hike the sales tax…

也讨论了增加销售税的提高税收建议„„(这里倒装是由于主语较长)Also said to be under consideration is a performance in Beijing．据说也考虑在北京上演。(这里过去分词与also连用，全句强调主语performance，倒装亦与上下文衔接有关)c)现在分词+be十主语。如： Covering much of the earth's surface is a blanket of water．地球表面上许多地方都布满了水。Facing the lake was a little inn with its pillared veranda．湖的对面是一个柱廊的小旅店。这种倒装结构多半已变成词序固定的句型。在新闻文体中，现 在进行时的现在分词亦可进行倒装。如：

Throwing the hammer is champion William Anderson，who is a hard-working shepherd in the Highlands of Scotland．正在掷链球的是冠军威廉·安德森，他是苏格兰高地上的一位勤劳的牧民。(这里自然是强调现在分词throwing，但倒装亦与主语较长有关)d)引述动词+主语+直接引语。这种结构常用于新闻体。如： Declared rosecutor Roy Amlot：“It was one of the most callous acts of all time．”检察官罗伊·阿默朗特宣称：“这是最最淡漠无情的行为之一。” Said he：“We confront great evils and we need great solutions.” 他说道：

“我们面对着重大的邪恶，我们需要重大的决策。” 2)表语置于句首。

a)形容词+连系动词+主语。如：

Present at the meeting were Professor Smith，Professor Brown，Sir Hugh and many other celebrities．到会的有史密斯教授、勃朗教授、休爵士以及许多其他知名人士。(这种倒装结构已经定型)Far be it from me to condemn him in any way．我决不会以任何方式谴责他。(这种倒装结构亦已成定型)b)过去分词十连系动词+主语。如: Gone are the days when they could do what they liked to the Chinese people．他们能够对中国人民为所欲为的日子一去不复返了。(强调过去分词gone，同时也是由于主语较长)c)介词短语十be+主语。如：

Among the goods are Christmas trees，flowers，candles，turkeys and toys．货品中有圣诞树、花卉、蜡烛、火鸡和玩具。(这种倒装结构已成定型)Amid the gaseous pollutants they inhale are carbon monoxide，sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxide，hydrochloric acid，ammonia and hydrocarbons．在他们所呼吸的污染气体中有一氧化碳、二氧化硫、氮氧化物、盐酸、氨和碳氢化合物。(此种倒装亦已定型)d)不定式+be+主语。如：

First to unfold were the two 14-foot-wide drogue chutes，which criented the craft and continued slowing it．首先要打开的是那两个14英尺宽的拖靶斜槽，这两个东西使飞机定向，并继续使之减速。

3)宾语置于句首。如： “Yes，”said the youth shortly．“是的，”那个小伙子简短地说道。Someone once said Australia is a country born to alcoholism．A man would pay $5 to get drunk and $8 to get home，goes the jest.有人说过，澳大利亚是生性嗜酒的国家。有一个笑话说，那里的人会花5元钱喝醉后，再花8元钱回家。4)状语置于句首。

a)某些副词+倒装结构。如：

Just then a along came Tom．就在这时，汤姆来了。

Just then in walked Isabella with a radiant face．正值此时刻，伊莎贝拉容光焕发地走了进来。[注]短语动词的小品词一般不可前置，如不可说Up cracked the soldier。又，上述例句中如用人称代词则不可倒装，如必须说，In she walked。

Then did I throw myself into a chair，exhausted．这时我累得一下就坐在椅子上了。Only in this way can we learn English．只有这样才能学会英语。[注]副词only后接非状语时则不可倒装。

So bright was the moon that the flowers bright as by day．皓月当空，花朵就像白天那样鲜艳。Crack goes the whip．啪的一声鞭子响了。b)介词短语十倒装结构。如：

By his side sat his faithful dog．在他的旁边蹲着他的忠实的狗。(介词短语表地点)Many a time as a boy have I climbed that hill．我在童年时期曾多次爬过那座山。(介词短语表时间)Up the valleys，down the valleys go they，saying，“Here is a place to build a breast—work；here can you pitch a fort．．．”他们沿着山谷走上走下，说着，“这里是筑胸墙的地方，这里可以修一堡垒„„”(介词短语表方向)With it was mingled far-away cheering．远处的欢呼声与此融在一起。(介词短语表伴随)c)表示否定的词语十倒装结构。如：

Nor once did he talk to me． 他一次也没有和我谈过。

Never did he speak about his own merits．他从不讲他自己的功绩。

Seldom has a devoted teacher been so splendidly rewarded．一位忠诚的教师很少受到如此好的报答。

Hardly had he arrived when she started complaining．他一到家，她就抱怨起来。

Little did I think that we were talking together for the last time．我没有想到我们这次谈话竟成诀别。

No sooner had he arrived than he went away again．他刚到家就又走了。

Not only did they present a musical performance，but they also gave a brief introduction to the history of Western brass instruments．他们不但做了音乐表演，而且简短地介绍了西方铜管乐器的历史。

[注]但不是所有以not开头的句子都必须倒装，如下面的句子即可不倒装： Not a soul was to be seen．一个人也看不见。Not that I know of．就我所知不是这样。

effect as soon as possible．要是委员会通过这些规定并尽快实施就好了!

有的同学总是抱怨时间紧，根本没时间写作文。其实“写”的形式很多，不一定就写作文才提高写作能力。比如写下你一天中发生的一些重要的事情，或当天学了某一个词组，你可以创设一个语境恰如其份地用上这个词。这样即可帮你记住这个词的用法，又可以锻炼你的写作能力，比如学“wish”一词时，可写一小段如下：

The teacher often asks us what we want to be in the future.My good friend Tom wishes to be a soldier.However,I'm different.I wish I were a teacher in the future.But my mother wishes me to be a doctor.口语是需要技巧的。光靠大胆自信还不够。关键是系统的方法。我是英语专业毕业的，英语八级，现在当翻译，在大学时去英语角，上课发言等都不管用，一度非常苦恼。后来发现口语练习需要系统的方法。建议你按照我的方法做。

买个口语软件，口语宝或者右脑王都不错。

1语音阶段，照软件的内容练，一天俩小时，最多一个月，语音可以过关。无论你的基础怎么样。切记一定要仔细认真模仿纠正模仿在模仿。

2篇章阶段，根据软件上的资料，句子，语音，语调，断句，停顿，高低，节奏，长短等等，越细越好，模仿，对比，模仿，纠正，再模仿。不求量只求质。同样一个月，明显可以提高。3电影阶段，看英语电影。每句话听五遍以上，看看能听懂几个单词。在看汉语五遍，看看能听懂几个词组，再看英语五遍以上。然后倒过来从英语字幕到汉语字幕到无字幕，五遍以上。冰河世纪这部影片够你看两个月，五分钟的影片可以看两小时以上。4与人交流。现在开始舍弃软件，自信大胆的与中国人，别管对错，把自己想说的说出来。与老外更好。记住耐心模仿，细心比较，持之以恒，反反复复，1,2个月以后你的口语一定很棒。

你是外企的白领要经常的说英语哦，这个很正常的哦，如果你要学英语口语的话，那么对如何学习英语口语我有一些经验了。我建议你可以跟我一样报个电话英语培训啊。现在的电话英语还很很好了，电话英语，只通过声音传递内容上课，所以要求学生要有更高的注意力，因此对提高听力有很大的帮助，同时在听他人说话的同时，自己也要开口说话，这种学习方式被认为是锻炼听力和口语的最佳方法，还有，电话英语最大的优势就是将上课内容全程录音可以供课后复习。而且时间安排可以在你的工作空余时间来学习英语口语哦，如何学习英语口语的必备条件—语言环境。口语是交流、是听和说。学习任何一种语言，首先要听懂，然后才学说话。口语不可以自学。学习英语口语必须进入英文语言环境。每天听的都是英文，也必须讲英文。中国学生为什么不会讲英文？因为中国的英文老师大部分不讲英文，用中文上英文课。学生在英文课上不讲英文，大部分还是讲中文。1 如何学好英语口语--学习英文口语最好是英文母语老师—即外教。英文为母语的老师，从小生活在英文的环境里。知道各种生活场景、生活内容的英文用语，并且他们的发音纯正，只有他们才可以教好口语。就像外国人要学中文，一定要请中国的老师。所有这里我向你推荐恩京电话英语培训学校，真是不错的，外教通过电话一对一教授日常口语，商务口语，雅思口语.面试英语，外贸口语,青少年英语等，每天回到家，晚上可以学10-20分钟，而且时间，外教都可以任选，均有指定教材，外教都是很有经验的老师，报名后每位学员在网站上都有专属学习地盘，每晚上课时外教会就你的问题当时提出纠正，上课后会在学员的学习地盘中留下当晚学习的详细评语和学员的进步情况分析，及第二天晚上上课讨论的建议。最重要的是，网站上有学员每晚学习的录音，学员可下载收听对照自己的学习；费用也特别实惠，我一个普通打工族就可以接受。随时随地和外教说英语，不错！2 学习英文还必须了解英文为主的西方文化。学习口语必须知道在什么场合，说什么话？怎么样说话是有礼貌的？什么是外国人忌讳的？就如同中文，从小父母就会教我们在什么场合要说你好、对不起。看见老人、叔叔、阿姨应当怎样称呼？在客人面前该问什么问题？不该说什么话？等等。因为我们的言语得体可以给别人留下良好的印象，不至于造成误会。3 学习口语必须大量地听说练习。我们从小中文是怎么学会的？是每天起床后就不断地听不断地说。每天至少12个小时在中文听说语言环境里。其他语言的学习也是同样的道理。不断地听，不断地说，随时纠正。学生只要在与外国人或学生之间讲英文，就是在学习。

我有啊，奉献给你一些啦，快快学习吧：

Do you have some time tomorrow? 明天有空吧? Yes, I do.有啊。

How about having lunch with me? 一起吃顿中饭怎样？ Good idea.好主意。

If you're free, how about lunch? 有空的话一起吃顿中饭如何？ When did you have in mind? 你想什么时候呢？ I was thinking about Thursday? 我看星期四怎样？ That will be fine with me.没问题。

I'm calling to see if you would like to have lunch tomorrow.我打电话给你，是想知道明天一起吃顿中饭怎样？ I'm sorry, but this week isn't very convenient for me.对不起，这个星期我都不方便。

Perhaps we van make it later.那么，也许改天吧。That would be better.好啊。

I'm calling to confirm our luncheon appointment.我打电话来，是想确定一下我们约好吃饭的事。

It's tomorrow at twelve o'clock, right? 是明天12点吧？ Yes, that's right.是的，没错。I'll be there.我会去的。

I'm sorry, but I have to cancel out luncheon appointment.真抱歉，不过我不得不取消我们午餐的约会。I'm sorry to hear that.真遗憾。

I have pressing business to attend to.我有紧急的事情要处理。

No problem.we'll make it later in the month.没关系，这个月改天再说吧。

一、多“说”。

自己多创造机会与英语教师多讲英语，见了同学，尤其是和好朋友在一起时尽量用英语去问候，谈心情……这时候你需随身携带一个英汉互译小词典，遇到生词时查一下这些生词，也不用刻意去记，用的多了，这个单词自然而然就会记住。千万别把学英语当成负担，始终把它当成一件有趣的事情去做。

或许你有机会碰上外国人，你应大胆地上去跟他打招呼，和他谈天气、谈风景、谈学校……只是别问及他的年纪，婚史等私人问题。尽量用一些你学过的词汇，句子去和他谈天说地。不久你会发现与老外聊天要比你与中国人谈英语容易的多。因为他和你交谈时会用许多简单词汇，而且不太看重说法，你只要发音准确，准能顺利地交流下去。只是你必须要有信心，敢于表达自己的思想。

如果没有合适的伙伴也没关系，你可以拿过一本书或其它什么东西做假想对象，对它谈你一天的所见所闻，谈你的快乐，你的悲伤等等，长此坚持下去你的口语肯定会有较大的提高。

第三篇：初一英语语法知识小结

[第一类] 名词类

专有名词与普通名词

名词按其意义可分为专有名词(proper noun)和普通名词(common noun)。

普通名词又可分为类名词、集体名词、物质名词和抽象名词。

1.专有名词：是个别人、地以及专门机构或团体的名称。

如：New York纽约 Clinton克林顿

2.类名词：是一类人或物的个体的名称。

如：piano钢琴，doctor医生，ship舰船

3.集体名词：是一些人或物的总称，作主语时可用复形谓语动词。

如：family家庭，army军队

4.物质名词： 是无法分为个体的实物。

如：sugar糖，tea茶，air空气

5.抽象名词： 是动作、状态、品质等抽象概念的名称。

如：work工作，honesty诚实，courage勇气

注：名词按其可数性分为可数名词(countable nouns)和不可数名词(uncountable nouns)。类名词皆可数，集体名词大都可数，专有名词、物质名词和抽象名词多不可数。

名词的复数形式

1.规则变化：

1)一般加-s

如：map------maps地图 field------fields田地 2)以s, x, sh, ch 结尾的名词后加-es 如：class---classes班，box---boxes盒子 dish---dishes盘子，match---matches比赛 3)以 f 或 fe 结尾的名词,变为-ves

如：leaf---leaves叶 thief---thieves贼(注：下列词例外 ：roofs屋顶，gulfs海湾, belief信仰，信条)

4)以辅音字母 y 结尾，变y为i，再加-es

如：party---parties党 factory---factories工厂(注：元音字母 y 结尾直接加-s： boys男孩 rays光线)

5)以辅音字母 o 结尾，一般加-es

如：potato---potatoes 马铃薯 hero---heroes 英雄(注：某些外来词 以及以元音字母 o结尾的名词，直接加-s: pianos钢琴，photos照片，kilos公斤;radios收音机

2.不规则变化

1)变内部元音。

如： foot---feet脚 man---men 男人 tooth-teeth 牙齿 mouse---mice老鼠

2)词尾加-en

如： child---children小孩 ox---oxen公牛

3)形式不变(即单复数一致)

如： deer----deer 鹿 fish---fish 鱼 sheep---sheep羊

复合名词的复数形式

由一个简单名词加一个或一个以上的词构成的名词叫复合名词(compound noun)。复合名词变复数时，有以下三种情况：

1.把最后一个构成部分变为复数形式，如： housewife → housewives家庭主妇 film-goer → film-goers爱看电影的人 gentleman → gentlemen先生 schoolroom → schoolrooms教室

2.将主要成分变为复数形式，如： looker-on → lookers-on旁观者 sister-in-law → sisters-in-law嫂子;弟媳 passer-by → passers-by过路人 bride-to-be → brides-to-be即将做新娘的人

3.将两个组成部分皆变为复数，这种复合名词第一个名词必须是man或woman，如： man doctor → men doctors男医生 woman teacher → women teachers女教师 man cook → men cooks男厨师 woman singer → women singers女歌手 名词的语法功能 名词在句子中可以用作：

1.主语

The boy opened the door.那个男孩把门打开了。

2.宾语 分为动宾和介宾两种：

I saw the boy.我看到那个男孩。(boy 作动词saw的宾语)Give the money to your brother.把这些钱给你兄弟。(brother 作介词to的宾语)

3.表语 He is a clever boy.他是个聪明的孩子。

4.宾语补足语 They called him a fool.他们叫他傻瓜。

5.定语 Is it a colour film? 是彩色影片吗?

6.同位语 This is my friend John.7.主语补足语 He is considered a good officer.他被认为是个好官员。

名词所有格

名词如要表示与后面名词的所有关系，通常用名词所有格的形式，意为“„„的”。一般有以下几种形式：

（1）.一般情况下在词尾加“'s”。例如：

Kate's father Kate的爸爸

my mother's friend 我妈妈的朋友

（2）.如果复数名词以s结尾，只加“'”。例如：

Teachers' Day 教师节

The boys' game 男孩们的游戏

（3）.如果复数名词不以s结尾，仍加“'s”。例如：

Children's Day 儿童节

Women's Day 妇女节

（4）.表示两个或几个共有时，所有格应加在后一个名词上。例如：

Lucy and Lily's room Lucy 和Lily的房间

Kate and Jim's father Kate 和Jim的爸爸

动物和无生命事物的名词的所有格一般不在词尾加“'s”，而常常用介词of的短语来表示。

a map of China 一幅中国地图

the name of her cat 她的猫的名字

a picture of my family 我的家庭的一张照片

the door of the bedroom 卧室的门

【练习题】

1.写出下列名词的复数：

tooth牙齿), goose(鹅), table(桌子), man driver(男司机)，potato(土豆)piano(钢琴), sheep(羊), mouse(鼠), loaf(面包), glass(玻璃杯)2.找出下列句子中的错误并改正：

1)This is a pair of trouser.这是一条裤子。

2)He gave me some advices.他给了我一些忠告。

3)She went to the library with two ladies friends.她和两位女伴一起去图书馆。4)The police is looking for him.警察在找他。参考答案：

1.teeth, geese, tables, men drivers, potatoes, pianos, sheep, mice ,loaves, glasses.2.1)trouser 不对。trousers 总是复数 2)advises 不对。advice 是一个不可数名词，不能加-s.3)应是lady friends.lady 和woman不同，它的复合名词变复数时，只变它后面的名词。4)police 总是复数，因此要把 is 改为are.实例

1.这些女老师们在干什么？

[误] What are the woman teachers doing？

[正] What are the women teachers doing？

[析] 在英语中，当一名词作定语修饰另一名词（单或复数形式）时，作定语的名词一般要用其单数形式；但当man，woman作定语修饰可数名词复数形式时，要用其复数形式men，women.2.房间里有多少人？

[误] How many peoples are there in the room？

[正] How many people are there in the room？

[析] people作“人、人们”解时，是个集合名词，其单复数同形。

3.我想为我儿子买两瓶牛奶。

[误] I want to buy two bottle of milk for my son.[正] I want to buy two bottles of milk for my son.[析] 表示不可数名词的数量时，常用“a / an或数词 +表量的可数名词 + of + 不可数名词”这一结构，其中当数词大于1时，表量的可数名词要用其复数形式。

[第二类] 动词类

动词可以按照含义及它们在句中的作用分成四类，即行为动词（也称实义动词）、连系动词、助动词和情态动词。

（一）行为动词

行为动词（实义动词）是表示行为、动作或状态的词。它的词义完整，可以单独作谓语。例如：

I live in Beijing with my mother.（我和我妈妈住在北京。）live，住

It has a round face.（它有一张圆脸。）has，有

在谓语中，助动词一般无词义，帮助动词构成谓语，表示时态，语态或构成疑问句及否定式。

连系动词

连系动词是表示主语“是什么”或“怎么样”的词，它虽有词义，但不完整，所以不能单独作谓语，必须跟表语一起构成合成谓语，例如：

We are in Grade Two this year.（今年我们在两年级。）are，是

are 这个词的词义“是”在句子中常常不译出。

连系动词可具体分为三类：

1、表示“是”的动词be。这个词在不同的主语后面和不同的时态中有不同的形式，is，am，are，was，were，have/has been等要特别予以注意。例如： He is a teacher.（他是个教师。）

He was a soldier two years ago.（两年前他是个士兵。）

We are Chinese.（我们是中国人。）

2、表示“感觉”的词，如look（看起来），feel（觉得，摸起来），smell（闻起来），sound（听起来），taste（尝起来）等，例如：

She looked tired.（她看一去很疲劳。）

I feel ill.（我觉得不舒服。）

Cotton feels soft.（棉花摸起来很软。）

The story sounds interesting.（这个故事听起来很有趣。）

The flowers smell sweet.（这些花闻起来很香。）

The mixture tasted horrible.（这药水太难喝了。）

3、表示“变”、“变成”的意思的词，如become, get, grow, turn, 都解释为“变”、“变得”，例如：

She became a college student.（她成了一名大学生。）

He feels sick.His face turns white.（他感到不舒服，他的脸色变苍白了。）

The weather gets warmer and the days get longer when spring comes.（春天来了，天气变得暖和些了，白天也变得较长些了。）

He grew old.（他老了。）

（三）助动词

这类词本身无词义，不能单独作谓语，只能与主要动词一起构成谓语，表示不同的时态、语态、表示句子的否定和疑问。

助动词的种类

1.be

有am, is , are, was, were, been, being等各种形式，表示进行世态，被动语态和复合谓语（和不定式连用，即be to do 表示“打算做„的意思）

be+现在分词，构成进行时态；be+过去分词，构成被动语态。

2.have

has, have, had, having主要构成完成时态。

“have/ has+过去分词”构成完成时态

3.shall(should), will(would)

可作助动词，构成将来时态，这时本身无意义；也可作情态动词，有一定意义。

“will/ shall +情态动词”构成将来时。

4.do

有do, does, did用来构成疑问句，否定句，加强语气，代替前面的动词避免重复。

“Do/ Does+主语+动词原形”构成一般现在时问句

“Did+主语+动词原形”构成一般过去时问句。

（四）情态动词

这类词本身虽有意义，但不完整。它们表示说话人的能力、说话人的语气或情态，如“可能”、“应当”等。这类动词有can, may, must, need, dare, could, might等。它们不能单独作谓语，必须与行为动词（原形）一起作谓语，表示完整的意思。

1.can 的用法

（1）can表示能力，“能，会”

如：I can speak Chinese, but I cannot write it very well.（2）表示“可能，能够” 如：I can finish it in an hour.（3）表示“许可，可以”常用在口语中

如：You can use my bike.can与be able to

can有现在时和过去时，be able to可用于各种时态。can表能力时，可用be able to代替。

2.may的用法

（1）表示“请求，许可”（比can正式）

如：May I use your dictionary?（2）表示推测，“可能，或许”（谈论可能性，一般用于肯定句）

如: I may go to the market next Monday.3．must的用法

（1）表示“必须，应该，应当”

如：You must stay here until I come back.注意：must 否定式mustn’t, 表示“一定不要”，“禁止”“不许”之意。

回答must问句时，肯定回答用must，否定回答要用needn’t.如： Must we leave so soon?

Yes, we must.No, we needn’t.（2）表示有把握的判断或推测，“一定，准是”，一般用在肯定句中。

注意：它的反意疑问句的构成形式。当must表示肯定的判断，推测，其反意疑问句要用实际问句的助动词来构成。

如：She must have finished writing, hasn’t she?

She must have finished writing last week, didn’t she?

（3）在“You must „” 句中，此句与祈使句意思相同。

如：You must come here early.=Come here, early!must与have to

must侧重个人意志和主观上的必要。

have to 侧重于客观上的必要，用于过去时，将来时，但must可以用在间接引语中，表示过去的必要或义务。

3.can, may, must的否定形式

can/may/must+not+v

4.can, may, must的疑问句

Can/ May/ Must +主语+v

对may引出的疑问句，回答可以用下列的形式回答：

（1）Yes, of course.(2)Yes, certainly.(3)Sure.(4)No, you mustn’t

(5)No, you cann’t.5.will, shall的用法

1)will 在一般疑问句中表示客气的“请求”。

对Will you „? 的回答有以下方式：

（1）Yes, I will.（2）Sure.（3）All right.（4）Certainly.（5）Yes, please.2)shall引出的疑问句用于第一人称，表示征求对方的意见或表示客气的请求。如：Shall I show you my book?

Shall we sing the English song?

对Shall I(we)„的疑问句的回答方式：

(1)Yes, please(2)No, thank you.6.would和should的区别

1）would是will的过去式；should是shall的过去式；Would you „? Will you„? 表示客气的请求，劝说；Would you„? 更客气。

2）should+v 表示“应该”

7.have to的用法

have to 表示“不得不”“必须”。

注意：肯定式用 have to

has to + v

had to

否定式用 don’t

疑问式用

doesn’t+ have to+ v

didn’t

Does

Do+主语+ have to+ v„?

Did 8.used to的用法

used to表示“过去经常„”,表示过去经常发生的动作。

如：I used to be afraid of the dark.He used to wear a red coat.注意：used to do的疑问句和否定句形式。

如：Did you use to play football?

No, I didn’t.9.used to do, be used to doing与be used to do的区别

used to do表示过去常发生的动作，强调过去，只用于过去。be used to doing为“习惯做„”be

有各种时态，be used to do, 为“„被使用去做„”。

如：She is used to eating meat.He wasn’t used to eating in a restaurant.Knives are, used to cut things.4.你妹妹通常什么时候去上学？

[误] What time does your sister usually goes to school？ [正] What time does your sister usually go to school？

[析] 借助助动词do（或does）构成疑问句或否定句时，句中的谓语动词用其原形。5.琳达晚上经常做作业，但今晚她在看电视。

[误] Linda often do her homework in the evening，but this evening she watching TV.[正] Linda often does her homework in the evening，but this evening she is watching TV.[析] 在初一英语学习阶段，我们接触到了两种主要时态：一般现在时和现在进行时。一般现在时表示经常的或习惯性的动作，常和often，usually，sometimes 等时间状语连用。在一般现在时的句子中，若主语是第三人称单数，谓语动词要用其第三人称单数形式。现在进行时表示现阶段正在进行或发生的动作，现在进行时由be（am / is / are）+ ving形式构成。6 这双鞋是红色的。

[误] This pair of shoes are red.[正] This pair of shoes is red.[析] 在shoes，trousers，gloves，glasses等表示成双成对的衣物或工具名词前用pair（表计量）修饰时，谓语动词的形式由pair的单复数形式来决定。

[第三类] 代词类

一.代词的种类： 人称代词，物主代词，反身代词，指示代词，不定代词，疑问代词，连接代词，关系代词和相互代词。

二.代词的用法

1.人称代词

1）表示你，我，他，她，它，我们，你们，他们的词叫人称代词。

主格

宾格

形容词性物主代词 名词性物主代词 反身代词

I me my mine myself

第一人称单复数 we us our ours ourselves 第二人称

单数 you you your yours yourself 复数 you you your yours yourselves 第三人称

单数 he him his his himself

she her her hers herself it it its its itself

复数 they them their theirs themselves 人称代词it的特殊用法：一般it指“它”，但在表示天气、时间、距离等时，用it来代替，此时的it并不译为“它”。

当三个人称代词(单数)同时出现时，其先后顺序为you，he，I。而复数一般采用we，you，they顺序。

2．物主代词

词义

单数

复数

类别

我的你的 他（她，它）的 我们的你们的 他们的形容词性

my your his, her, its

our

your their 名词性

mine yours his, hers, its

ours yours theirs 物主代词的用法：

形容词性物主代词后面一定要跟上一个名词, 只作定语，不作表语。

名词性物主代词可作主语、表语、宾语。

3．反身代词

1)反身代词的构成分两种：第一、二人称反身代词在形容词性物主代词后加上self或selves，第三人称的反身代词在宾格代词后加上self或selves．

2)反身代词的用法：一种是作宾语，由主语发出的动作又回到动作者本身。如：I enjoyed myself at the party．另一种是作名词或代词的同位语；用来加强语气。如：I can do it myself．

3)初中阶段由反身代词构成的常用词组有：enjoy oneself，help oneself to，learn by oneself，teach oneself，(all)by oneself，leave...by oneself，lose oneself in等，在运用反身代词时，应注意它在数、性别上与哪一个保持一致。试比较：

“Help yourselves to some fish，Tom and Mike．”与I can’t leave the girl by herself．

4.指示代词

指示代词的常用用法：1）this/ these 通常指空间上和时间上较近的人或物，而that/ those 则指较远的人或物。

指示代词的特殊用法：

(1)为了避免重复，可用that，those代替前面提到过的名词，但是this，these不可以。

(2)this，that有时可代替句子或句子中的一部分。

5.不定代词

主要不定代词的用法：

(1)one的用法

A.one作为代词可以指人，也可以指物。

B.one，ones(one的复数形式)可用来代替前面出现过的少数名词，以避免重复。

C.one的前面可用this，that，the，which等词来修饰。

D.常有a+形容词+one这一形式。

it和one的用法区别：it用来指特定的东西，而one则用于替代不特定的东西。

(2)some和any的用法区别

A.some，any可与单、复数可数名词和不可数名词连用。some一般用于肯定句，any一般用于否定句，疑问句和条件句中。

B.some，any与—thing，—body，—one构成的合成词的用法与some，any一样。

C.在疑问句中，一般不用some，只有当问句表示一种邀请或者请求，或期待一个肯定的回答时才能用some。

D.some在否定句中表示半否定，any表示全否定。

E．some用于单数可数名词前，表示“某个”而不是“一些”。

(3)other，another的用法

数

种类

单数

复数

泛指

another=an other other(boys)others 特指

the other the other(boys)

the others 功能

作主语、宾语、定语

作定语 作主语、宾语

A.another＝another“另一个”，泛指众多者中的另一个，在原有基础上自然增加的另一个。一般后面接单数名词，前面不能加定冠词。有时another可以用在复数名词前表示“又”“再”，如：

I want to have another two cakes．我想再吃两个蛋糕。

B．the other表示两个中的另一个，常与one连用。常见形式是“one．．．the other．．．”。

C.other+复数名词＝others

D.the other+复数名词＝the others(4)a11、both的用法

both表示“两者都„„”，而a11表示“三个或三个以上的人或物都„„”。

a11、both在句中放在be动词，情态动词及助动词之后，放在实义动词之前。

(5)each和every的用法

A.each用来指两个或两个以上的人或物中的一个。every则指两个以上的人或物中的一个。

B.从含义和语法功能上看，each是“单个”的意思，侧重个体，在句中可作主语、同位语、定语和宾语。而every是“每一个”之意，侧重全体、整体、共性。在句中只能作定语，也就是说它后面必须跟着名词。而由every构成的合成词后面绝不能跟名词。

(6)either，neither，both的用法

either：指两者中的任意一个。作主语谓语用单数。

neither：指两者都不，全否定。作主语谓语用单数。

both：指两者都。作主语谓语用复数。

(7)many和much

many只能和复数可数名词连用。

much只能和不可数名词连用。

注意：

a lot of／lots of / plenty of＝much／many a large／great number of＝many a great／good deal of＝much

(8)few，a few，little，a little few，little表示否定含义，“很少”“几乎没有”；a few，a little表示肯定含义，有一些”。few，a few用在可数名词前，little，a little用在不可数名词前。

含义

肯定

否定

用法

修饰可数名词

a few

few 修饰不可数名词

a little

little（9）none, neither

none表示三者或三者以上全否定；而neither表示两者全否定意义。

（10）either, neither

a)either指两者中的任何一个，在句中作主语，宾语和定语。

b)neither指两者中没有一个，全否定，意为两者都不，在句中作主语，宾语和定语。

作主语时，谓语用单数。l

l 一般与单数名词连用，谓语动词用单数。

l either„or 和neither„nor作并列连词时，可与复数名词连用，也可与单数名词连用，还可连接其他词。

l neither可用于下列句型，以免重复，表示否定意义，这时也可以用nor

She can’t speak Japanese.Neither can he.= He can’t speak Japanese, either..(11)none, no one

none指人，物都可以，no one只指人

none可单独使用，也可与of连用，而no one 不与of 连用

none强调数量，no one不强调数

none作主语谓语动词用单，复数都可以，但常用复数形式，而no one只能

用单数谓语动词。

（12）none，no

none三者或三者以上“都不”

none 作主语时，多与of构成短语，谓语动词单，复数都可以，如果表语是名词时，名词用单数，谓语动词就用单数；名词用复数，谓语动词就可以用复数。

none of 也可不作主语。

no只作定语。

（13）either, any

l either表示“两者中任何一个”之意；any 表示“三者”或“三者”以上中的“每一个” “任何一个”之意。

（14）it, that, one

it用来代替人和物，指可数名词单数或不可数名词。它代替的人或物就是被替代的名词本身，也就是上面提到的人或物本身。l

l that用来替代特定的可数名词或不可数名词，避免重复，当后面有of 或in 短语时，前面替代词一般用that替代单数或不可数名词，用those替代可数名词复数。

one是替代名词，指同类中的一个，不是特定的，相当于a(an)+名词。l 物主代词

★ 物主代词是表示所有关系的代词，即人称代词的属格，表示“所有”。它可分为两类，即：形容词性物主代词和名词性物主代词。它和人称代词一样也可分为第一人称，第二人称和第三人称，每个人称分单复数形式。如下表所示：

★ 形容词性物主代词相当于形容词，可放在名词前修饰名词。如：

① David is playing with his dog.戴维正和他的狗玩。② Mary lost her purse.玛丽丢了钱包。

③ I must thank you for your help.我必须谢谢你的帮助。

★ 名词性物主代词相当于名词，其形式取决于它们所指代的名词或代词。如：

① That isn’t my bike.Mine is blue one.那不是我的自行车，我的是蓝色的。

② Their English teacher is older than ours.他们的英语老师比我们的年纪大。

③ We should tell yours from his.我们应该把你的东西和他们的区别开来。

★ 形容词性物主代词具有形容词性，通常被用作定语；有时为了强调事物的所属关系与形容词own连用。如：

① He will do his work well.他会把他的工作做好。

② She turned away her eyes.她移开了视线。

③ Their apples are the biggest of all.他们的苹果是最大的。

④ Mind your own business!不关你的事。

⑤ He has his own car.他自己有车。

★ 名词性物主代词具有名词的特性，在句子中可以用作主语、宾语以及表语等等。如：

① This is your glasses.Mine is on my nose.（作主语）

这是你的眼镜。我的正戴在我的鼻子上。

② Hers is the most wonderful idea.（作主语）

她的主意是最好的。

③ My pen is broken.Could you lend me yours?（作动词宾语）

我的钢笔坏了。你能把你的借给我吗？

④ Her son is very naughty, but both of yours are very good.（作介词宾语）

他的儿子很顽皮，但是你的两个孩子都很乖。

⑤ Hey, what are you doing? The car is mine.（作表语）

喂，你们在干什么？那车是我的。

另外，名词性物主代词有时还可以和of连用构成双重属格。如：

① He is friend of mine.他是我的一个朋友。

② Look at that big bed nose of his.看他的大红鼻子。（含有感情色彩）练习：

一．用适当的代词填空

1.I make ______(they, their, theirs, them)for workers.2.The factory is very near ______(I , my, me, mine)house.3.What does ______(Mr Green, Mr Green’s)do?

4.I want to buy ______(some, any)food for supper this evening.5.Sorry, you can’t have ______(some, any)eggs.6.It sells _____(lot of, much, a lot of)things.7.In the evening, I do ______(your, my, his, her)homework.8.How _____(much, many)does it cost?

9.He has a new book, I have ______(it, one, that), too.10.Mother bought many oranges and gave the children two ______(every, each, either).11.---Can you come next Monday or Tuesday?

---____(Either, Neither, Each, Both)day is OK.12.---How many pandas did you see?

---_____(No one, None, Not many).13.______(I, you and he, You, he and I)are good friends.二．单项选择

1.He asked three men Bob, Joe, and ______ to be ready.A.I

B.herself

C.me

D.himself 2.______ have known each other for ten years.A.He and I B.I and He C.He and you D.I and you

3.Listen to ______ sister!

A.she and she’s B.she and her C.her and she D.her and her 4.You’ve dropped your pencil.______.A.Pick up it B.Pick it up C.Take up it D.Bring it up 5.She is as tall as ____.A.him B.her C.himself D.she

6.What’s that girl? ________.A.It’s a student B.She’s student C.She’s a student D.She’s a student girl 7.Jack gave _______.A.to her the flowers B.the flowers to hers C.her the flowers D.hers the flowers 8.Their parents are ________ teachers.A.both

B.all

C.either

D.neither

9.This room is ________ in the building.A.bigger than any other one

B.biggest than any other one

C.bigger than any one

D.the biggest than any other one

10.I have four brothers.One is in Shanghai, but _______ are in Shenyang.A.another B.other C.the other D.the others 三．中考真题测试

1.My cousin is very busy with his work.He has ______ time to read newspaper.（2005年北京）

A.little B.few C.a little D.a few

2.— Is this pen yours?

— No, it’s not _______.It’s Elsa’s.（2005年北京）

A.I B.me C.my D.mine

3.My sister is a clerk.______ works in a bank near here.（2005年北京海淀）

A.She B.He C.I D.You

4.— _______ is your favorite sportsman?（2005年北京海淀）

— Liu Xiang.A.How B.When C.Who D.Which

5.I like to live in a house _______ is big and bright.（2005年北京海淀）

A.that B.who C.how D.why

6.When Yang Liwei came back from space, many reporters interviewed ______

and got some first-hand information.（2005年上海）

A.that B.who C.how D.why

7.Liu Xiang and Yao Ming are world-famous sports stars.______ of them have set a good example to us.A.All B.Neither C.Both D.None 8.I haven’t checked my emails today, because there’s ______ wrong with my

computer.（2005年沈阳）

A.something B.anything C.everything D.nothing

9.I’m sure I can improve _______ in spoken English in two years’ time.（2005年大连）

A.myself B.ourselves C.himself D.themselves

10.There are two new buildings near the sea, and ______ of them are very tall.（2005年大连）

A.none B.all C.neither D.both

11.—Paul, do you know the man standing at the door?（2005年吉林）

—Yes, he is one of _______ friends.A.I B.me C.my D.mine

12.The pears in my basket are smaller than _______ in Jim’s.（2005年黑龙江）

A.it B.that C.ones D.those

13.It was a long jouney, but ______ of them four felt boring.（2005年黑龙江）

A.neither B.both C.none D.all

14.—Dear me!What a wonderful computer!（2005年黑龙江）

—My grandpa bought it for my sister and me.It’s ______.A.mine B.hers C.theirs D.ours

15.Mary is thirty.Give ______ some orange, please.（2005年济南）

A.his B.her C.hers D.yours

16.—Would you like to go watch TV or listen to the music?（2005年济南）

— _______.I’m busy with my work.Thank you.A.Both B.None C.Either D.Neither

17.Don’t worry.We have ______ time to do the job.（2005年济南）

A.enough B.few C.many D.little

18.—Sorry, I’m late.（2005年济南）

—_______ doesn’t matter this time.A.This B.That C.It D.One

19.—Excuse me, is there a repair shop near here for MP3?（2005年河南）

—Well, turn left at the crossing, then you will find _______.20.We’ve got two TV sets, but ______ works well.（2005年河北）

A.any B.both C.either D.neither 参考答案：

一．1.them 2.my 3.Mr Green 4.some 5.any

6.a lot of 7.my 8.much9.one 10.each

11.Either 12.None 13.You, he and I.二．1-5 CADBB 6-10 CCAAD

三．1-5 ADACA 6-10 BCAAD 11-15 CDCDB 16-20 DACDD

7.这张票是她的，不是我的。[误] This is hers ticket.It’s not my.[正] This is her ticket.It’s not mine.[析] 物主代词有形容词性物主代词和名词性物主代词之分。形容词性物主代词之后一定要接名词，而名词性物主代词之后不需接任何词。8.吴老师教我们英语。

[误] Miss Wu teaches our English.[正] Miss Wu teaches us English.[析] teach sb.sth.中的sb.作teach的宾语，因此当sb.为人称代词时要用其宾格形式。

[第四类] 介词类

常用介词：in, on, under, behind, near, at, of 1).in表示”在„„中“，”在„„内“。例如：

in our class 在我们班上

in my bag 在我的书包里

in the desk 在桌子里

in the classroom 在教室里

2).on 表示”在„„上“。例如：

on the wall 在墙上

on the desk 在桌子上

on the blackboard 在黑板上

3).under表示”在„„下“。例如：

under the tree 在树下

under the chair 在椅子下

under the bed 在床下

4).behind表示”在„„后面“。例如：

9.你能找到这个问题的答案吗？

[误] Can you find the answer of this question？

[正] Can you find the answer to this question？

[析] 英语中用“the answer to „”表示“„„的答案”。类似结构还有the key to the door，the way to the zoo等。

10.格林先生星期六上午来这里。

[误] Mr Green will come here in Sunday evening.[正] Mr Green will come here on Sunday evening.[析] 表示在上午、下午等时，介词要用in；而表示在具体的某天上午、下午时，介词要用on.11.那个穿着红裙子的小女孩是我们老师的女儿。

[误] That little girl on a red skirt is our teacher’s daughter.[正] That little girl in a red skirt is our teacher’s daughter.[析] 用介词表示“穿戴衣物”时，只能用in，其他介词没有此用法。[第五类] 副词类

12.莉莉，你为什么不回家呢？

[误] Lily，why don’t you go to home？

[正] Lily，why don’t you go home？

[析] come，go 等后接here，there，home等地点副词时，地点副词前不加to。[第六类] 连词类

behind the door 在门后

behind the tree 在树后

5).near表示”在„„附近“。例如：

near the teacher's desk 在讲桌附近

near the bed 在床附近

6).at表示”在„„处“。例如：

at school 在学校

at home 在家

at the door 在门口

7).of 表示”„„的“。例如：

a picture of our classroom 我们教室的一幅画

a map of China 一张中国地图

13.我喜欢语文和英语，但我不喜欢体育和历史。

[误] I like Chinese and English，but I don’t like P.E.and history.[正] I like Chinese and English，but I don’t like P.E.or history.[析] 在肯定句中并列成分之间用and来连接；而在否定句中，并列成分之间的连接需用or。

[第七类]冠词 a / an / the: 冠词一般位于所限定的名词前，用来署名名词所指的人或事物。冠词有不定冠词和定冠词两种。不定冠词有两个形式，即a和an。a用在以辅音音素开头的词前，如a book;an用在以元音音素开头的字母前，如an apple.a或an与可数名词单数连用，泛指某类人或某物中的一个。

This is a cat.这是一只猫。

It's an English book.这是一本英语书。

His father is a worker.他的爸爸是个工人。

the既可以用在可数名词前，也可以用在不可数名词前，表示某个或某些特定的人或事物，也可以指上文提到过的人或事物。

Who's the boy in the hat? 戴帽子的男孩是谁呀？

------What can you see in the classroom?------I can see a bag.------Where's the bag?------It's on the desk.-------你能在教室里看到什么呀？

------我能看见一个书包。

------书包在哪呀？

------在桌子上。

特殊的词用法

1.some和any

①在肯定句中用some.例如：

There are some books on the desk.桌子上有一些书。

Lucy has some good books露西有一些好书。

②在疑问句和否定句中用any。例如：

Is there any ink in your pen?你的钢笔里有墨水吗？

Do you have any brothers and sisters?你有兄弟姐妹吗？

There isn't any water in the glass.杯子里没有水。

⑵记住它们的特殊用法。

①some亦可用于表示盼望得到对方肯定的答复或表示建议、委婉请求的疑问句中，这一点我们不久就会学到。例如：

Would you like to have some apples?你想吃苹果吗？

②any也可用于肯定句中，表示”任何的“。例如：

Any one of us can do this.我们当中任何一个都能做这个。

some 和any的用法是经常出现的考点

4.family family看作为一个整体时，意思是”家庭“，后面的谓语动词be用单数形式 is ；如把family看作为家庭成员时，应理解为复数，后面的谓语动词be应用are。

My family is a big family.我的家庭是个大家庭。

My family are all at home now.我的家人现在都在家。

Family强调由家人组成的一个集体或强调这个集体中的成员。home指个人出生、被抚养长大的环境和居住地点。house指”家“、”房屋“，侧重居住的建筑本身。

His family are all workers.他的家人都是工人。

My home is in Beijing.我的家在北京。

He isn't at home now.他现在不在家。

It's a picture of my family.这是一张我全家的照片。

2.little的用法

a little dog 一只小狗，a little boy 一个小男孩。little常用来修饰有生命的名词。

*但little还可表示否定意义，意为”少的“，加不可数名词。

There is little time.几乎没时间了。

There is little water in the cup.杯中水很少。

3.There be 的句子结构

There be是一个”存在“句型，表示”有“的意思，肯定句的形式为：There be + 名词（单数或复数）+地点状语或时间状语。

be动词单复数的确定，看be后边第一个名词，当所接主语为单数或不可数名词时，be动词形式为is；当所接主语为复数名词时，be动词为are；当be动词后接两个以上主语时，be动词与最临近主语保持数上的一致。意思为”某地有某人或某物“。如：

There is an eraser and two pens on the desk.桌子上有一块橡皮和两支钢笔。

There are two pens and an eraser on the desk.桌上有两支钢笔和一块橡皮。

（1）there be的否定句，即在be的后面加上not。

否定形式为：There be + not +(any)+ 名词+地点状语。

There is not any cat in the room.房间里没猫。

There aren't any books on the desk.桌子上没书。

（2）there be句型的疑问句就是将be提到句首：Be there +(any)+名词+地点状语？肯定回答：Yes, there is / are.否定回答：No, there isn't / aren't.---Is there a dog in the picture? 画上有一只狗吗？

---Yes, there is.有。

---Are there any boats in the river? 河里有船吗？

---No, there aren't.没有。

（3）特殊疑问句：How many...are there(+地点状语)？”某地有多少人或物？"回答用There be...There's one./ There are two / three / some...有时直接就用数字来回答。One./ Two...---How many students are there in the classroom? 教室里有多少学生？

---There's only one./ There are nine.只有一个。/有九个。

（4）如果名词是不可数名词，用：How much + 不可数名词 + is there + 地点状语？

How much water is there in the cup? 杯中有多少水？

How much food is there in the bowl? 碗里有多少食物？

第四篇：英语语法小总结1

exercise的用法：

1.作可数名词用，表示“练习，习题，体操，功课，操练”等，常用复数。

I'm doing my exercises.我在做练习/功课。

Doing morning exercises is helpful to our health.做早操对我们的健康是有益的。

You should do more spelling exercises.你应该做更多的拼写练习。

2.作不可数名词用，表示“锻炼，运动”。

You are weak because of the lack of exercise.你身体弱是因为缺少锻炼。

Take more exercise, and you will be healthy.多多锻炼，你会健康的。

more是much和many的比较级，most是much和many的最高级，而much用于修饰不可数名词，many用于修饰可数名词

第五篇：初二英语语法知识重点总结

初二英语语法知识重点总结

一、知识强化

1．掌握本单元的重点词汇及句型。

2．谈论最好做某事和正确做某事，培养提高自己的交际能力。

3．正确使用should和ought to。

二、重难点知识讲解

1．First, we decided to elect the chief editor.首先我们决定选出主编。

decide 动词，意为“决定”，常用结构：

decide(not)to do sth.决定(不)做某事

decide on doing sth 决定做某事

decide + 疑问代词/副词＋不定式

决定……

decide＋从句

决定……

e.g.I decided to go to Beijing on Monday.我决定星期一去北京。

He has decided on going for a trip next week.他已决定下周去旅行。

He decided when to go to Beijing.他已经决定了什么时候去北京。

We decided that we didn’t take part in the basketball match.我们决定不参加篮球比赛。

2．We should choose Joyce because she has experience.我们应该选乔伊斯因为她很有经验。

（1）experience n.经验；经历

①经验(不可数名词)

e.g.He is a math teacher with 5 years’ experience.他是一名有五年工作经验的数学老师。

②经历(可数名词)

e.g.It was a strange experience.真是一次奇特的经历。

Please tell us your experiences in America.请你告诉我们你在美洲的经历。

（2）experience v.体验；经历

e.g.Our country has experienced great changes in the last thirty years.我国在过去三十年经历了巨大变化。

3．Then we all voted for her.然后我们都投票赞成（选乔伊斯为主编）。

vote for sb.意为“投票赞成某人”。

e.g.I shall vote for Ben because he has experience.我将投票选本因为他有经验。

Vote for Johnson—the people’s friend!

请投约翰逊一票——他是人民的支持者。

vote against 意为“投票反对”。

e.g.People vote against Henry.人们投票反对亨利。

4．Then Joyce took charge of the meeting.于是，乔伊斯主持会议。

take charge of意为“主管，主持；负责”。

e.g.Who will take charge of the meeting?

谁将主持这次会议？

She took charge of the family business after her father died.父亲去世后，家务事全由她负责。

The department was badly organized until she took charge(of it).这个部门在她负责管理以前组织工作做得很差。

5．Then the others voted for me.于是其他人投票选我。

句中的the others指参加会议的除我以外的所有人即：Lucy, Joyce, Tony和Jessica。

辨析：other, the other, the others与another

（1）other表示“其他的”，表示泛指，没有特定的范围。

e.g.Lei Feng always helped other people.雷锋总是帮助别人。(指其他的任何人)

（2）the other意为“另一个”，一般用于两者之间。其句型为：one…the other…一个……另一个……

e.g.The old man has two sons.One is a soldier, the other is a worker.那位老人有两个儿子，一个是士兵，另一个是工人。

注意：the other和other后均可加名词，但意思有所不同，“the other＋名词”表示一定范围内除一部分外其余的全部，而“other＋名词”表示除去部分以后的另一些，但不是剩下的全部。

（3）the others 特指一定范围内的其余的全部人或事物。

e.g.I have three pencils.One is long, and the others are short.我有三支铅笔，一支是长的，另外（两个）是短的。（代词）

（4）another表示三者或三者以上的其他任何一个，意为“再一；又一”。

e.g.Would you like another cup of tea?

你还要一杯茶吗?

6．You will be responsible for different sections of the paper.你们将负责报纸的不同部分。

be responsible for意为“对……负责”。

e.g.Who is responsible for breaking the mirror?

镜子是谁打破的?

The bus driver is responsible for the passengers safety.公共汽车司机应对乘客的安全负责。

7．Should it be free for readers, or should they pay for it?

读者应免费阅读还是花钱购买呢？

辨析：pay, spend, cost与take

四个单词都可以表示“花费”，但用法却不尽相同。

（1）pay的基本用法是：

①pay(sb.)money for sth.付钱(给某人)买某物。

e.g.I have to pay them 20 pounds for this room each month.我每个月要付给他们20英镑的房租。

②pay for sth.付某物的钱

e.g.I have to pay for the lost book.我不得不赔偿丢失的书款。

③pay for sb.替某人付钱

e.g.Don’t worry!I’ll pay for you.别担心，我会给你付钱的。

（2）spend的主语必须是人，常用于以下结构：

①spend time/ money on sth.在某物上花费时间/ 金钱。

e.g.I spent two hours on this maths problem.这道数学题花了我两个小时。

②spend time/ money(in)doing sth.花费时间/金钱做某事。

e.g.They spent two years(in)building this bridge.造这座桥花了他们两年时间。

（3）cost的主语是物或某种活动，还可以表示“值”，常见的用法如下：

①“sth.cost(sb.)＋金钱”表示“某物花了(某人)多少钱”。

e.g.A new computer costs a lot of money.买一台新电脑要花一大笔钱。

②“(doing)sth.cost(sb.)＋时间”表示“(做某事)某物花了(某人)多少时间”

e.g.Remembering these new words cost him a lot of time.他花了大量的时间才记住了这些新单词。

（4）take 常见的用法有以下几种：

①“It takes/took sb.＋时间＋ to do sth.”表示“做某事花了某人多少时间”。

e.g.It took them three years to build this road.他们用了三年时间修完了这条路。

②“doing sth.takes sb.＋时间”表示“做某事花了某人多少时间”。

e.g.Repairing this car took him the whole afternoon.他花了一整下午修这辆小汽车。

8．Well, I usually try to get one for free from outside the library…

哦，我通常试图从图书馆外免费拿一份……

try to do sth.,意为“尽力、设法去做某事”，强调付出一定的努力或想方设法地去完成。

I’ll try to come early tomorrow.我明天尽量早点儿来。

辨析：try doing sth.意为“尝试着做某事”，不一定付出很大努力。

e.g.If you like, you can try watching it.如果你喜欢，你可以试着看一下。

拓展：

①try/do one’s best to do sth.意为“尽某人全力去做某事”。

e.g.We should try our best to practice speaking English.我们应尽力来练习说英语。

②try on意为“试穿”。

e.g.Can I try it on?

我可以试穿一下吗?

③try也可用作名词，意为“尝试”。

e.g.I can’t open this door—will you have a try?

我打不开这扇门——你来试试行吗?

9．I also have the habit of reading English for half an hour every morning.我也有每天早上读半小时英语的习惯。

have the habit of doing…意为“有干某事的习惯”。

e.g.My mother has the habit of getting up early.我妈妈有早起的习惯。

He has habit of smoking during meals.他有吃饭时吸烟的习惯。

10．Were you nervous before the speech? 在演讲前你紧张吗?

nervous意为“焦虑的，紧张的”，形容词作表语，可以与动词get/ feel，系动词be连用。

e.g.Don’t be nervous!The doctor just wants to help you.别紧张!医生只是想帮助你。

I felt very nervous when I went into his office.当我走进他的办公室时，我感到很紧张。

11．She was on her way to the library to return the books.她正走在去图书馆还书的路上。

（1）the way to…意为“去……的路”。其中the可以用物主代词替换。如果表示地点的词是副词home, there, here等时，则不用介词to。way为名词，意为“路；道路”，其常用的搭配还有on one’s way to＋n.或on one’s way＋adv.，意为“在去……的路上”。

e.g.I see some beautiful flowers on my may home.在回家的路上，我看到一些美丽的花。

On my way to the school I met my head teacher.上学路上我遇到了班主任。

（2）return在句中意为“归还”，相当于give sth.back.e.g.Return the book to the library.把书归还给图书馆。

12．but I haven’t felt lonely at all.但我一点也不感到孤独。

（1）辨析：lonely与alone

①lonely一般只用作形容词，表示“孤单的，孤独的，寂寞的”，在句中既可作表语，又可作定语。lonely修饰物时，意为“荒凉的”。

e.g.When his wife and two little children left him, he was very lonely.妻子和两个孩子离他而去后，他很孤独。

This is a lonely mountain village.这是一个荒凉的小山村。

②alone作形容词时，意为“单独的，独自的；独一无二的”，通常只用作表语。用作副词，表示“独自地，单独地”之意，相当于by oneself。此外，alone用在名词或代词之后，意为“只有，唯有，仅仅”。

e.g.Tom alone knew what had happened.只有汤姆知道发生了什么事。

③lonely指人孤独寂寞，或指地方荒无人烟，有浓厚的伤感色彩。alone表示“单独，独自一人”，不含感情色彩。

e.g.He doesn’t feel lonely though he lives alone.尽管他独自生活，但他并不感到孤独。

（2）not…at all 意为“一点……也不；根本不”，是完全否定。

e.g.I don’t like it /them at all.我根本不喜欢它（它们）。

He can not swim at all.他根本就不会游泳。

She doesn’t love me at all.她根本就不爱我。

三、语法点拨——should与ought to的用法

1．一般说来，两者可替换，只是ought to语气稍重。

e.g.You ought to(should)go and see Mary sometime.你应该什么时候去看看玛丽。

The train ought to(should)have arrived at six.火车本应该6点钟到的。

Such things ought not to be allowed.这种事情是不允许的。

2．表示出于法令规则、行为准则、道德责任等客观情况而“应该”做某事时，一般应用ought to，若用should则含有个人意见，强调主观看法。

e.g.We ought to go and see Mary tomorrow, but I don’t think we will.明天我们按理应该去看看玛丽，但是我认为我们不会去(此句不宜用should)。

3．在公告、须知或条例中，出于礼貌，常用should。如：

e.g.You should not run alongside the swimming-pool.不准在游泳池边奔跑。