翻译管窥兼谈外文翻译的特点与技%B

第一篇：翻译管窥兼谈外文翻译的特点与技%B

关于外事翻译管窥兼谈俄文翻译的特点与技巧

虎林市外事侨务办

严风勇

论文关键词：外事翻译 译员素质 翻译技巧

论文摘要：本文根据“信、达、雅”翻译理论，从外事翻译工作的实际出发，对外事翻译工作进行了分类剖析，提出了从事此项工作的译者所需的素质及专业技能。对做好外事翻译工作具有一定的理论借鉴价值和实践指导意义。

随着我国改革开放的不断深入，经济全球化的趋势越来越明显，我们的国际活动日趋频繁，外事翻译工作的重要性就显得越来越重要。外事工作是我们与外部世界联系、交往、交流、合作等项活动的总称。外事工作存在于各层次的政府机构、科研单位、大专院校、工矿企业……外事工作的内容也十分广泛，既有政治的，也有经济的、科学技术的、文化教育和体育卫生的。不同部门、不同行业的外事工作具有各自的特点，但都离不开外事翻译。

一、外事翻译工作的分类及特点

(一)外事翻译的分类

外事翻译工作根据其具体形式可以分为两大类：外事笔译和外事口译。

外事笔译。外事笔译主要是指外事部门起草的国际合作意向书、协议书；与国外友好单位往来的书信；聘请合同（针对外籍专家），对外宣传等等的翻译。外事口译。外事口译是指外事工作人员为领导接见外宾时的会谈、演讲、接受媒体采访、合作谈判、参观、访问、游览、娱乐、购物及日常生活等的口头翻译。

(二)外事翻译的特点

1.具备翻译的普遍特点。外事翻译同其它类别的翻译一样具备翻译所共有的特点，即将一种语言转换成另一种语言，是不同民族间相互交往、相互了解的桥梁，在标准上基本遵循严复先生所提出的“信、达、雅”准则。

2.具有外事翻译的行业特点，主要体现在：

(1)译文的严谨性。严谨的作风是外交、外事和涉外工作者的第一作风，语言在涉外工作中的第一要求就是必须严密、准确。因不严谨而犯的错误很多都与语言的错误有关,这说明了语言必须准确的重要性。周恩来于1949年11月8日在外交部成立大会上曾说过：“外交工作是比其他工作困难的。做群众工作犯了错误，群众还可以原谅，外交工作则不同，被人家抓住弱点，便要被打回来。”这里所说的“弱点”当然包括了语言的错误和不当。同理，在外事翻译中更要注意语言的准确性，如错误或曲解了原语的意思,也会被别人“打回来”。这就要求外事翻译工作者必须有高度的责任感,保证准确无误。外事翻译常常会涉及到国际间的合作、合作协议的拟定与签署、聘用合同的制定与签署以及涉外规章制度的制定与翻译等，这些都涉及到我国的信誉及根本利益，外事翻译人员只有时刻遵循严谨的工作准则，才能为国家建好通向世界的桥梁，为国家的长远发展保驾护航。

(2)政治的警觉性。外事交往对象主要是国际机构、国际商业集团组织、其它国际政治实体，我们必须清醒地认清国际形势，看到西方敌对势力对我国长期以来的和平演变、人权攻击以及领土分化等行为，因此，外事翻译不同于其它普通翻译，要有足够的政治敏感性和警觉性，不给国外任何敌对势力以可乘之机。从国家大局来讲，外事翻译代表着国家的对外形象，它有着不同于其他翻译的特定的要求，正如周恩来总理曾说过“外交人员是不穿军装的解放军”。外事翻译者翻译有坚定的政治立场，有着符合国家和政策的原则,在翻译时反应国家的立场、政策和态度，不能具有丝毫的随意性。

(3)礼仪性、政策性与纪律性的统一。我国是礼仪之邦，文明大国，作为国家对外的一个窗口，外事翻译要体现我们的文明与礼仪，同时还要注意到与我们的政策与纪律的协调一致。外事是为了提高我国的国际影响力，加快产业国际化进程，根本工作是为了维护国家的长远利益，因此，我们必须以实现对外政策，一切涉外语言当然必须符合政策，具有政策性，这是很自然的。时刻牢记“外事无小事”，涉外语言也都必须遵守纪律，做到“该说的说，不该说的不说”，纪律性也一样是外事语言的一个严格要求。在对外交往中，在任何情况下都不可“忘乎所以”，“敞开心扉”，不可“知无不言”，“言无不尽”，而永远应当记住“内外有别”，记住涉外语言的高度政策性和纪律性。

二、外事翻译人员应具备的素质

(一)坚定的政治立场

作为外事翻译人员，最根本的素养就是要具备坚定的政治立场、高度的政治警觉性。“外事无小事”，从上面所论述的外事的特点不难看出，外事翻译人员的良好政治素养关系着外事工作的根本利益，是外事工作健康、和谐、可持续发展的前提与保障。在此还值得一提的是外事译员属涉外人员，可以说是处于对外开放、国际交流的最前沿，其一言一行都代表着自己的国家和民族，因此，在翻译过程中还应牢记外事纪律，应以维护国家利益和民族利益为己任。外事译员需树立正确的世界观、人生观和价值观。

(二)优秀的道德品质

无论是哪种外事翻译（笔译或是口语）都是一种细致又艰苦的工作，是一种默默无闻很难看出成绩的工作。具体说来，翻译是一种具有高度创造性的活动，它绝非是随心所欲地创造。语言是文化的载体，是反映民族文化的一面镜子。由于各民族的文化传统、生活习俗、历史条件、宗教信仰等差异，表示同一事物的语言符号会对不同民族引起不同的联想。这就要求译员必须具备良好的职业道德和严谨的学术态度，在翻译过程中不能掺杂个人观点，更不能主观臆造，必须忠实于原意。译员还必须在主动承认中外文化差异的基础上，进一步学习跨文化差异的特征，了解外国专家的心理动态，了解外国人的思维方式和处世哲学，提高素质和知识结构，主动向他们讲述东西方文化的差异以及风俗习惯，在工作中达成谅解与默契，主动解决矛盾，求同存异，相互尊重。因此，外事译员需要具有爱岗敬业、无私奉献的精神，具有优秀的道德品质和修养。

(三)过硬的专业技能

外事译员除了具备上述的政治过硬、道德品质过硬之外，还应该做到专业技能过硬，要做行业的专家。这主要体现在以下几方面：

1.过硬的语言技能。外事翻译同其他翻译一样，需要译员具有良好的语言技能，这语言语言技能包括母语素养和从事某种语言翻译的外语素养。翻译是一种双语活动，以语言的对比为基础的。要提高翻译能力，译员必须同时具备两种语言的较高素养，即不仅要有扎实的语言基础和较高的文字水平，而且还要掌握母语与外语在语法结构、词汇意义、修辞方法、文化背景等诸多方面的同异及处理差异的技巧。在这一双语活动中，任何一种语言素养的欠缺都将严重影响翻译水平和译文质量，达不到从容架起沟通语言和文字理解之桥梁的目的。因此，译员要想驾轻就熟，先决条件是具备过硬的语言技能。

2.过硬的翻译理论技能。理论是指导实践的工具，翻译工作不是简单的语言文字的转换过程，它是一种再创作的过程，外事译员只有打好宽厚扎实的翻译理论基础，掌握高超的翻译技巧，才能在外事翻译工作中游刃有余，得心应手。关于这方面的具体问题，本文将在下面详细探讨。

3.良好的心理素质。外事翻译活动形式多样，富于变化，极具挑战性。外事活动的多样性体现在形式的灵活多变上，比如：领导接见外宾、国际合作事务商谈、演讲致辞、新闻采访，涉外事务处理等等；活动所涉及的领域很广，诸如：政治、经济、文化、科技等等。复杂多变的形式加上涉及的范围较广，因此翻译过程中难免会有很多不可预见的问题出现，就算再高水平的译者也会遇到棘手的问题和困惑，这就要求外事翻译人员要具备良好的心理素质，处变不惊，反应敏锐。

三、外事俄文翻译人员应掌握的技巧

(一)遵循翻译的标准和原则

外事俄文翻译自然要遵循较为公认的翻译标准，即由严复先生提出的“信、达、雅”翻译标准。郭沫若非常推崇“信、达、雅”标准，他说：“不信就是乱译、错译，不达就是死译、硬译，不雅就是走到极端的不成话”。在遵循翻译标准的前提下，外事俄文翻译工作者要力求追随我国历代翻译家在探索翻译审美和翻译活动的一般规律时所创造的“和谐”之美的原则，即达到“文”与“质”、“信”与“美”、“言”与“意”、“神”与“形”、“化”与“讹”等对立统一中求得翻译的和谐之美。

(二)直译、意译、直译与意译相结合等方法的灵活应用

1.直译法，就是在保留原文基本形式、形象、民族、地域特色的前提下，用另一种语言表现出原文的信息。

例：Любовь—кольцо，а у кольца нет конца。爱情是个环，环上无终点。

2.意译法是指解释翻译，就是指注意保持原意，但着重抛开原话，重新组合以求达到意义上的等值。有些习语直译别人看不出原意，那么，意译解释则更能体现原意。

例A：Кто садится меж двумя стульями，тот предает революцию。“谁若是坐到两只椅子中间，谁就出卖革命。”这样译很费解，就不如汉语中成语译成“谁若脚踏两只船，谁就是出卖革命。”

例B：对牛弹琴перед коровой играть на люине如果按字面意思译成：метвть бисер перед свиньия而这句是出自圣经的，译成“投珠于豕”更贴切。

3.直译和意译合而为一以达到形神兼备的效果。

例A：Война—это кто-кого передумает。战争—这是斗智。例B：Лучше этого дела не откладывает。事不宜迟。这种二合一译法有形神兼备的优点，除使译文精练外，还可以“恰到好处”地表达原意，增加译文的音韵美和光彩。

作为外事俄文翻译工作人员，除了上述较为基本的翻译技巧外，还应该掌握并灵活运用翻译的增词与减词的译法、嫁接式译法、长句的顺译与倒译法等等。在这里就不一一赘述。

外事翻译是我国敞向世界的一扇窗户，而窗口工作的好坏，国家形象塑造的优劣很大程度上取决于外事翻译工作。作为外事翻译的工作人员应该时刻牢记自己的使命，保持高度的政治敏锐性和鲜明的政治立场，爱岗敬业、钻研业务，为经济的进步、社会的和谐发展贡献力量。参考文献：

[1]范仲英.实用翻译教程[M].北京:外语教学与研究出版社,1999.[2]谭载喜，新编奈达论翻译[M].北京:中国对外翻译出版公司，1999.[3]喻云根，新编翻译教程[M].洛阳:中国人民解放军外国语学院，1987.[4]赵总宽.辩证逻辑原理[M].北京:中国人民大学出版社,1986.[5]任小平.外交口译的灵活性[J].中国翻译,2000(5).[6]孙致礼.我国英美文学翻译概论[M].南京:译林出版社,1996.[7]文军,杨梅.外事口译标准初探[J].外语学刊,2003(2).[8]王育论.俄译汉教程[M].哈尔滨：黑龙江教育出版社，1992.[9]范东生.文化的不同层次与翻译标准[J].外国语，2000(3).[10]杨英明.口译的思维方向探微[J].中国科技翻译,2003(5).

第二篇：网络游戏运营与盈利外文翻译

毕业设计（论文）

译文题目：原稿题目：原稿出处：

译文及原稿

中国网络游戏产业的商业模式和运作问题 Business models and operational issues in the Chinese

online game industry Ian MacInnes,Lili Hu.[J].Telematics and Informatics.2007,24(2):130-144．

浙江工业大学之江学院毕业设计（论文）

外文翻译

中国网络游戏产业的商业模式和运作问题

摘要：互联网越来越的广泛使用使得网络社区如雨后春笋般发展起来。其中特别有趣的现象之一就是网络游戏的出现。本文就虚拟世界的开发者在其探索切实可行的商业模式途中将面临的困难进行论述。本文作为探索性课题是一个对中国虚拟世界的开发者和用户进行研究的个别案例，来确定在这种商业模式下存在的问题。本文讨论宽带和网络游戏以及诸如文化，历史，外挂，私服，虚拟财产贸易，开发商控制，管理和调控此类的反馈效果。尽管大部分中国虚拟世界的运营商都具有盈利能力，但通过密切观察发现即使最成功的中国虚拟世界运营商仍然处于商业模式的早期阶段。

关键词：虚拟世界，中国，商业模式，网络

1.简介

随着MacInnes(2004a)创造出来的互联网在全球范围内的拓展,网络对于交流变得至关重要。随之而来的结果就是不同形式，为各种目的而发展起来的网络社区为人们提供了工作，社交以及娱乐上的便利。在不同形式的网络社区中最吸引人眼球的就是虚拟世界，但是何为虚拟世界呢？就是人们在一个持续的合成的环境中通过虚拟角色（通常是一个头像）来相互交流。虚拟世界属于网络游戏的一种，在这个虚拟世界中成千上万的人们可以同时参与相互影响。这种在中国最受欢迎的网络游戏就是虚拟世界。

MacInnes(2004a)对虚拟世界这一现象提出了概观。这一概念的提出对于现如今我们通过案例研究来完善这项工作起到了重要作用。我们以一个别案例开始研究中国网络游戏产业，是因为随着宽带的大范围使用，中国的网络游戏为虚拟世界带来的市场的发展速度比许多国家都快。这一点比其他因素更有说服力。本文将从商业形式的前景方面讨论社会，法律，以及一些其他环境方面的问题。现今中国虚拟世界产业所面临的挑战和机遇并不仅仅只在我们国家存在。同样的问题很可能在虚拟世界市场欠发达的北美，欧洲等地区也一样存在。从这一案例中吸取的教训同样可以被那些以网络为根基的产业使用动态商业模式框架来促进技术革新的所使用。

作为探索性课题，这是一个对中国虚拟世界的开发者和使用者进行研究的个别案例，来确定在这种商业模式下存在的问题。本文引用了许多人们对其提出的疑问。比如，中国网络游戏的运营者面对日益增加的竞争问题该采取什么样的策略？中国的网络 浙江工业大学之江学院毕业设计（论文）

外文翻译

游戏公司会在他们的价值链中趋于上游吗？宽带在产业发展中扮演了怎样的角色？中国社会对于这一新的娱乐方式会有如何反应？为什么中国的网络游戏相对于单机游戏发展地更好？

2.理论背景

互联网的蓬勃发展促使了许多新网络社区的出现。商业虚拟社区面临的一个重要问题是如何找到一个有利可获的商业模式同时兼顾着促使这些社区由最初的小规模向大规模发展。早期的虚拟社区大多都是十分科学的但近期越来越多的发展成果刺激人们在虚拟空间里共享各自的兴趣爱好。虚拟世界不仅为虚拟社区丰富多彩的图形支持，也带来了复杂的市场活动。

在因特网发展的早期，它着重于汇聚研究人员。但一旦大学之间通过网络相互联系了，基于个人爱好的网络社区就开始发展起来了。这些社区往往讨论兴趣还好，娱乐方式等Rheingold(1993）。那时大多使用电子邮件，群发，后来发展为BBS，MUDs,人们就在那里开始创造一个奇妙的世界Castronova(2002）。这些都是现今图形化了的虚拟世界的先驱。

对于网络社区的研究已经改进了。学者已经证明了虚拟社区的使用能改善公民的行为Blanchard and Horan(1998)，促进社会抵制运动的发展De(2003)。虚拟社区同样可以用来创造，集结，组织，运用知识([Bruynseels and Vos,2000], [Daniel et al., 2002], [Jansen et al., 2000] and [Schubert and Koch, 2002])。他们也作为一种管理工具被用于组织中。营销部门发现人们对于产品和服务的迷恋能帮助一家公司发展与顾客的关系，使他们产生对其的忠诚度([Kardaras and Karakostas, 2000] and [Schubert and Koch, 2002]).。然而这些社区常常会招致公司的批评(Lueg, 2001)。

虚拟社区可以根据活动，会籍的不同种类进行分类。例如，Hagel and Armstrong(1996)把网络社区分为四类：交易社区，兴趣社区，幻想社区，关系社区。相似地，Klang and Olsson(1999)把它们分为社区网络，专业协会，个人社团，“第三位置”（人们会见新老朋友的地方）。Klang and Olsson(1999)确定四种社区类型：论坛，浙江工业大学之江学院毕业设计（论文）

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商店，俱乐部，集市。这里的市场就是买卖实品，或者虚拟商品的地方。这种活动正变得越来越流行。以上四位作者都已承认这些社区不仅具有娱乐价值也同样具有商业价值。本文我们将着重陈述虚拟社区具有的娱乐方面的价值，目的是来理解这个产业的商业模式动态。

很多使用者都愿意为这些社区付钱，比如互联网国际象棋俱乐部(Ginsburg and Weisband, 2003).。更有甚者在结构化的游戏中，会员们会引进一种叫 “chekels”用来当筹码，然后用来换成现金。一些社区的社会方面正在迅速为使用者带来商业上的基于这并不是骇人听闻的。社区的设计假想通常可以决定开发者是否能为使用带来利益。缺少公司控制能造成困难。尽管世上有成千上万的人活跃于这些虚拟世界中，但学者们只是最近才开始认识到这些社区的发展动态。

因为这些虚拟世界如今已能产生盈利，本研究着重于那些社区的商业模式方面。在过去5年里商业模式文献数量已经有了增长地飞快，对于虚拟世界开发者与使用者在试图开发基于虚拟财产的有利可图商业的道路上遇到的困难将带来帮助。学者在研究商业模式上做的贡献可分为三个领域：研究单个因素来突出他们的重要性，研究证明能使一种商业模式成功的几个条件，研究证明商业模式的组成成分。

我们把重点放在这个产业的商业模式方面的其中的一个原因是它所具有的巨大经济潜力。即使在应用率较低的中国，这个产业正在产生巨大的经济收入。我们因此需要去理解这个产业是怎样发展起来的，将来会朝着哪个方面发展。这些商业模式的文献数量已经相当丰富了，甚至有点过头了。在很多方面，学者往往过分单独强调许多模式已经参与了成分的静态分析，而笔者认为这是影响了公司的经济发展的。这些静态商业模式在一定程度是无效的，我们分析一个新兴产业，往往开发商在找到切实可行的商业模式之前他们必然会经历很多困难。MacInnes(2004a)考虑到发展中产业的动态因素提出了一个四阶段动态商业模式框架的理论。这一理论特别是为比如中国网络游戏市场一类的新兴产业所设计的。

2.1.动态商业模式框架

动态商业模式框架是用来观察商业发展经历，来更好地了解他们的产业。这对于虚拟世界游戏开发商，运营商刚成立的业务分部来说尤其适用。这一模式由四个相互关联的阶段组成。如下图：

浙江工业大学之江学院毕业设计（论文）

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图1：动态商业模式

影响一个公司商业模式在其早期阶段与成熟阶段的因素是不同的。第一阶段技术问题是最为重要的；第二阶段环境问题，例如应该注重法律；第三阶段开发商可以结合传统收入模式；第四阶段应着重于支撑商业的因素。

虚拟社区的企业和用户模式开始出现，公司仍有许多事情要去解决。这一部分引用了其他学者已确定的四个阶段的成功商业模式。基于这些因素，在开发虚拟世界的不同阶段将面临的问题都有可能解决。

2.1.1.第一阶段：技术因素

在技术开发的早期阶段，技术因素对于商业成功起着至关重要的作用。这些技术因素是那些正在销售的产品或服务所固有的。我们应当注意的是在信息领域许多商业是从技术革新发展起来的。因此我们需要找到一种商业模式使他们的产品朝着努力的方向商业化。不幸的是技术有时候并不完全被商业化所适用，这些问题需要在公司进行营利模式之前就被解决。

在虚拟世界产业中，技术因素可以摧毁一家公司因为人们在虚拟世界中创造的财产拥有相当大的价值。如果这些财产因为技术问题或者安全漏洞问题丢失的话，那么开发者将会失去信誉，破产，或者因为不赔偿用户而被起诉。因此，在虚拟世界中人们拥有客观的财产，公司服务器的安全问题必须放在首要位置。Duh et al.(2001)发现市场的安全性和完整性因素是至关重要的，我们必须把他们放在首要位置，因为只有这样会员才会信任虚拟世界的开发者。

2.1.2.第二阶段：环境因素

商业模式的第一阶段的技术问题已经解决了。虚拟世界现在进入第二阶段要来克服环境因素所带来的问题。环境因素包括法律，社会，一般的经济限制。这一阶段通常被所忽略，因为直到技术商业化后人们才可能意识到技术为社会带来的问题。许多 浙江工业大学之江学院毕业设计（论文）

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商业化的技术如录像机，对等网络等由于法律问题或者对社会，经济有着不良影响，受到了人们的质疑。Vasilopoulou et al.(2002)提出政策和规则对于商业模式的成功的起着至关重要的作用。相似地，Schroeder et al.(2001)认为缺乏安全保障，组织和法律问题是公司从传统商业模式过渡到电子商务过程中最难克服的问题。在目前对于这一商业的法律机制尚未成熟的情况下这些论文中所提到的法律问题也将起着一定的作用。例如，谁拥有虚拟世界的财产，或者是虚拟货币的兑换是否赋予虚拟银行功能。随着虚拟世界平行于现实世界，当出现违法事件的时候政府可能会出面干预，或遇通货膨胀时会去保护财产。

2.1.3.第三阶段：收入模式问题

商业模式发展的第三阶段主要是传统的问题，例如收入来源，顾客价值，成本和基础设施管理。从笔者已研究的单独因素上看，瓦斯尼和海德强调使用增加转换成本来作为维持顾客忠诚度的这一策略。或在这种商业模式内从一网站上创建和维护社区来支持，促进经济活动。随着时间的推移作为参与者发展的属性和角色的结果虚拟世界拥有高转化成本。他们会发现换到另一个虚拟世界，或者重新开始一个角色，发展新的关系这会需要很高成本。瓦斯尼和海德也暗示开发互补产品。一些公司运营网络游戏卖真实产品用来换成数码产品。相似地，Amit和Zott说网络游戏公司在这一阶段也会考虑到其他传统因素，包括：1.降低交易成本形式下的效率问题。2.技术，活动和产品之间的互补。3.锁定网络外部性和高转换成本。4.新结构，内容，参与者带来的新奇问题。虚拟世界为玩家提供新奇的内容。但它们可以无限制地虚拟因为用户可以添加内容，有着丰富多彩的体验。在所有令开发虚拟世界的公司感到最棘手的问题包括人员发展，社区发展以及资产管理。随着一些用户发展他们自己的商业，开发商渐渐失去了控制。浙江工业大学之江学院毕业设计（论文）

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Business models and operational issues in the Chinese online game

industry

Abstract：The rapid growth of Internet usage has enabled many new online communities to develop.A particularly interesting phenomenon that has arisen through Internet communities is the virtual world(VW)style of online game.This paper identifies the challenges that developers of VWs will face in their efforts to find viable business models.This is a single case study of China as an exploratory project to determine the issues 浙江工业大学之江学院毕业设计（论文）

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surrounding business models for virtual world developers and users.The paper discusses the feedback effects between broadband adoption and online games as well as issues such as culture, history, Waigua, private servers, virtual property trade, developer control, governance, and regulation.In spite of the profitability of major Chinese VW operators, close observation of the Chinese case suggests that even the most successful VW operators are still in the early stages of their business model development.Key words：Virtual world

China

Business model Online game Introduction As the Internet continues to grow worldwide, Internet-based channels have become increasingly important for communication.As a result, online communities of many forms and for various purposes have developed and have enabled people to work, socialize and entertain themselves.Among the many types examples of online communities, a particularly interesting phenomenon is the virtual world(VW), a persistent synthetic environment where people communicate with each other using a virtual persona, often called an avatar.VWs are a type of online game that can have thousands of people involved and potentially interacting at the same time.The vast majority of popular online games in China are VWs.MacInnes(2004a)provided an overview and framework for understanding the VW phenomenon.It is now important to supplement this work through case studies.We chose to begin with a single case study of the Chinese online game industry because its market for VWs is growing more quickly than in many other countries due to the rapid adoption of broadband among other factors.Social, legal and other environmental issues are discussed in this paper from the perspective of business models.The challenges and opportunities facing the current Chinese VW industry are not merely country specific.The same issues are likely to play out as less developed VW markets in North America and Europe grow.The lessons from this case can also be compared to other Internet based industries using the dynamic business model framework for emerging technologies(MacInnes, 2004a).This is a single case study of China as an exploratory project to determine the issues surrounding business models for virtual world developers and users.The paper addresses a number of questions.What alternative strategies are available to Chinese online game operators who are facing an increasingly competitive market? Will Chinese online game companies move upstream in their value chain? What is the role of broadband in the 浙江工业大学之江学院毕业设计（论文）

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development of the industry? How is Chinese society reacting to this new form of entertainment? Why has the online game industry achieved greater success in China than stand-alone computer games?

2.Theoretical context The growth of the Internet has enabled many new virtual communities to be established.One of the key issues facing a commercial virtual community is finding a profitable business model that also fosters the initial growth of the community toward critical mass.Early virtual communities were mainly scientific but more recent developments have motivated people to congregate in a virtual space to share personal interests.Virtual worlds provide a new level of graphical richness to virtual communities while also supporting complex market activities.The early years of the Internet emphasized bringing together researchers but once many universities were connected, communities based on personal interests developed.These often involved hobbies and entertainment(Rheingold, 1993).In these early days the most common technologies were e-mail and listservs that later evolved into bulletin boards and MUDs where people began to create fantasy worlds(Castronova, 2002).These were forerunners of today’s graphical virtual worlds.Research about online communities has evolved.Scholars have documented the effectiveness and use of virtual communities in society to foster, for example, civic behavior(Blanchard and Horan, 1998)and social resistance movements(De, 2003).Virtual communities can also be used to create, gather, organize, and manage knowledge([Bruynseels and Vos, 2000], [Daniel et al., 2002], [Jansen et al., 2000] and [Schubert and Koch, 2002]).They have also been used as a management tool in organizations.Marketing departments have found that people’s fascination with the product or service can help a company develop relationships with customers to generate loyalty([Kardaras and Karakostas, 2000] and [Schubert and Koch, 2002]).These communities often result in criticism of companies, however(Lueg, 2001).Virtual communities can be classified according to types of activities and membership.For example Hagel and Armstrong(1996)identified four categories of online communities: communities of transactions, communities of interest, communities of fantasy, and 浙江工业大学之江学院毕业设计（论文）

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communities of relationship.Similarly Klang and Olsson(1999)divide them into community networks, professional societies, personal societies and the “third place,” where people go to meet with new and old friends.Klang and Olsson(1999)identify four types of communities: the forum, the shop, the club, and the bazaar.The bazaar involves activities where the members themselves are buying and selling physical and now virtual products as well.This type of activity is becoming more and more prevalent.These authors have recognized the entertainment as well as the commercial value that communities have.In this paper we focus primarily on the entertainment segment of virtual communities and aim to understand the business model dynamic of this industry.Many users are willing to pay for communities such as the Internet Chess Club Even in a structured game such as chess, members introduced “chekels,” a monetary unit that could be exchanged for dollars.It is thus not surprising to see that the social aspects of these communities are rapidly transforming into commercial opportunities for users as well.Design assumptions of the community will often determine whether developers want to encourage or discourage the profit motives of users.Lack of company control can cause difficulties.Even though there are millions of people around the world who are active in these virtual worlds, scholars have only recently begun to understand the dynamics of these communities.Because of the revenue streams that virtual worlds are now able to generate, this study focuses on the business model aspects of those communities.Business model literature has grown rapidly over the past five years and is helpful in understanding the challenges that VW developers and users are likely to face in their attempts to develop profitable businesses based on virtual property.Contributions from scholars in business models can be divided into three areas: studies that focus on single factors to highlight their importance, studies that identify several elements that make a business model successful, and studies that identify business model components.One of the reasons why we want to focus on the business model aspects of this industry is because of its large economic potential.Even with its relatively low adoption percentage in China, the industry is already generating large revenues.We thus want to understand how the industry has evolved and how it will be able to generate further growth.The business model literature is quite rich and sometimes overwhelming.In many instances scholars 浙江工业大学之江学院毕业设计（论文）

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have tended to emphasize some aspects over others and many of their models have involved static analysis of the components that the authors believe affect the economic success of companies.These static models are, to a certain extent ineffective when we are analyzing an emerging industry, as they have to go through many challenges before they have a viable business model.MacInnes(2004a)provides a four stage dynamic business model framework that takes into consideration the dynamic aspects of an evolving industry.The model was designed specifically for emerging industries such as the Chinese online game market.2.1.The dynamic business model framework The dynamic business model framework was designed to take into consideration the evolution that businesses experience as they become more knowledgeable about their industry.This is particularly true for business segments that are just emerging as is the case with virtual world game developers/operators.The model is composed of four interrelated stages.Fig.1 shows the different stages.Fig1 Dynamic business model framework for emerging technologies.The factors that affect the success of a company’s business model at its early stages are different from those affecting the business at a more mature stage.In the first stage technical issues are of greatest importance.In the second stage environmental factors such as law and adoption should be considered.In the third stage developers can begin to incorporate traditional revenue model factors.The fourth stage focuses on factors that will sustain the business.Corporate and user models around virtual communities are beginning to emerge and companies still have many elements to work out.This section addresses the factors that other scholars have identified in each of the four stages that contribute to the success of a 浙江工业大学之江学院毕业设计（论文）

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business model.Based on these factors it is possible to specify the challenges that these virtual worlds will face as they move through different stages of development.2.1.1.First stage: technological factors In the early stages of technological advance, technical factors are crucial to the success of the business.These technical factors are those that are inherent to the product or service being sold.It should be noted that in the information field many businesses emerge from technical innovations.Thus finding a business model that allows them to commercialize such products is the natural progression to their efforts.Unfortunately sometimes the technology is not entirely ready to be launched commercially and these issues need to be dealt with before the firm can concentrate on revenue models.2.1.2.Second stage: environmental factors Many of the technical aspects faced in the first stage of business models have been overcome.VWs are now in the second stage where they have to overcome environmental factors.Environmental factors include legal, societal, and general economic limitations.This is a stage that is generally overlooked because it is not until a technology has been commercialized that people might realize the problems that the technology could pose for society in general.A number of commercialized technologies, such as the VCR and some peer-to-peer networks, have had their survival challenged because of a legal problem or another negative impact on society or the economy.Vasilopoulou et al.(2002)point out that issues of regulation and policy are critical to the success of a business model.Similarly Schroeder et al.(2001)determined that lack of security, organizational, and legal issues are the most difficult to overcome when companies make the transition from a traditional business model to one centered on electronic commerce.The legal issues that both of these papers identify will also play a role in these businesses as it is not yet clear in a legal sense, for example, who owns property in VWs or whether the convertibility of virtual currencies gives VWs banking functions.As VWs appear to parallel the real world, governments may want to intervene when illegal activities occur or to protect assets if there is inflation.2.1.3.Third stage: revenue model concerns The third stage of business model development focuses on traditional concerns such as revenue sources, customer value, costs, and infrastructure management.From the authors that have looked at single factors Wathne and Heide(2001)emphasize the use of strategies that increase switching costs as a way of maintaining customer loyalty, or look at a way of 浙江工业大学之江学院毕业设计（论文）

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creating and maintaining communities within the context of the business as a way of supporting and enhancing the economic activity from a website.VWs have high switching costs as a result of the property and persona that a participant in such a community develops over time.They may find it costly to switch to another VW and have to begin another persona and develop new relationships.Wathne and Heide also suggest developing complementary products.Some companies running online games offer physical products that can be exchanged for their digital versions.Similarly other traditional factors that companies in the online game industry can consider at this stage, according to Amit and Zott(2001), include:(1)efficiency in the form of reduced transaction costs;(2)complementarities between technologies, activities and products;(3)lock-in through network externalities and high switching costs;and(4)novelty through new structures, content and participants.VWs provide novel features for their players and they are virtually limitless as users can add content, improving the richness of the experience.Among the most challenging factors that companies developing virtual worlds face are member development, community development, and asset management(Williams and Cothrel, 2000).With some users developing their own businesses, developers lose some control.

第三篇：外文翻译---电子商务与物流的关系

附录

Electronic commerce and physical distribution relations First, under the electronic commerce environment physical distribution pattern 1.The use of EMS services in the logistics model.The enterprise either the business obtains information and so on consumer's shopping list and home address from the website or the hypothesized website, then goes through the special delivery formalities to the nearby post office to mail out the cargo, the customer receives the post office to take the goods notice, brings back to the locus post office the cargo, or delivers directly by the mailman the cargo in the customer hand.The use of EMS services with a convenient, fast characteristics.But, High fees, and very difficult to ensure that consumer receives goods within the time expecting that 2.Corporate self-distribution logistics model station.The enterprise establishes own cargo allocation spot in the land's the customer crowded area, after obtaining the shopping information, delivers goods to the doorstep by an allocation personnel.This kind of physical distribution pattern may satisfy the customer “namely to buy namely results in” the shopping psychology demand.But it also has following problem: An allocation layout, the population equipment, the commodity reserve and so on determined reasonably very difficultly.3.draws support from the third party physical distribution enterprise's pattern.The third party physical distribution is the enterprise completes part or the complete physical distribution activity request for other specialized physical distribution company.The physical distribution company itself does not have the commodity, but forms the cooperation alliance with the enterprise, provides the service for the customer.Selects this physical distribution method, the service is the specialization, multi-purpose and omni-directional.But if the delivering goods quantity is too small, the delivery expense must be higher than generally other form service expense.Second, under the electronic commerce environment physical distribution existence's question the 1.The theoretical study of the logistics system and in-depth enough.Our country physical distribution management's researcher just contacted these new theories, waits for in further digests and absorbs.2.Lack of infrastructure, backward technology and equipment, the logistics industry is relatively backward.Our country Enterprise in the physical distribution aspect's Information technology, the integrated management and the computer applied technology level is generally low.Transport capacity can not meet the needs of industry, the main transport corridors are still prominent contradiction between supply and demand.3.Related the logistics of e-commerce environment laws and regulations remain to be improved.4.The logistics industry and logistics management training should be strengthened.The physical distribution talented person and the Information technology are realize the physical distribution modernization basic condition, the physical distribution talented person lack seriously, are unable to provide the enough intellectual support for the new physical distribution system's establishment.Third, physical distribution under electronic commerce environmental effect trend of development more than

1.Multi-facetedthe pursuit of logistics enterprises.Under the electronic commerce influence, the logistics is situated between the suppliers and buys between the supplier the third party, is take serves as the objective.The physical distribution enterprise not only needs to serve for this area, must carry on the long distance service, not only because the customer the hope obtains the good service, moreover the hope service point is not, but are many places.Therefore, how to provide the high grade service then to become the physical distribution business management and the development core topic.Also only then has the first-class service physical distribution enterprise, can impel the electronic commerce truly the development.3.Information technology-the only way to modern logistics industry.In the electronic commerce time, must provide the best service, the physical distribution system must have the good information processing and the transmission system.When the cargo transports from the world, the customer then may place information and so on obtain the arrival time, receipt, so that the warehousing, the Transport company can prepare for, causes the commodity, in does not pause nearly in situation fast flowing, thus raises the service level greatly, reduces the cost, enhances the competitive power, also manifests the electronic commerce to depend on the convenience which well the network platform brings to be quick.electronic commerce and the physical distribution take the modern circulation two big methods, has the close relation.Electronic commerce takes the network time one kind of brand-new transaction pattern, is opposite in the tradition trading mode is a revolution.But, electronic commerce must have the modernized physical distribution technology support, can manifest its incomparable sophistication and the superiority.Only then develops the modernized physical distribution vigorously, electronic commerce can a better development.Along with the 21st century Information technology, the network development, will certainly to promote the electronic commerce and the physical distribution organic synthesis, the modernized physical distribution computerization will become the populace to live the indispensable important part.Fourth, e-commerce model of logistics Under electronic commerce the physical distribution and the allocation, are the Information technology, modernized, the socialized physical distribution and the allocation.Refers to the logistics and distribution network of enterprise computer technology and modern hardware devices, software systems and advanced management tools for social needs, strictly, keep the land in accordance with the user's order request, to conduct a series of classification, allocation, sorting , division of labor and distribution of work, such as cargo handling, timing, fixed-point, there is no quantitative way to limit the scope of the various types of users, to meet their demand for goods.We can see that this new type of logistics and distribution is based on a new look, becoming the vanguard of innovation in circulationBasin, on behalf of the modern marketing of the main direction.New type of logistics and distribution will enable the circulation of commodities in a more traditional way of logistics and distribution of information more easily, automation, modernization, social, intelligence, rationalization, simplification, which reduces the production of inventory, speed up cash flow and improve logistics efficiency and reduce logistics costs, also stimulated the social needs of society as a whole is conducive to macro-transfer space, but also to enhance the economic benefits of the whole society, and promote the healthy development of market economy.Traditional logistics and distribution centers can be divided into the following types: the main manufacturers in the distribution center to wholesalers as the main distribution center to retail distribution centers as the main body to the main storage for the transport of the distribution center.The traditional distribution model can be divided into the following: Set-based distribution model of cargo, bulk-type mixed distribution model and distribution model.Finally, this model combines the two types of distribution patterns of the previous advantages, can the flow of goods to carry out effective control of the entire process.Finally, this model combines the two types of distribution patterns in front of the merits of, may carry on the active control to the commodity circulation entire process.Uses this kind of allocation pattern the circulation enterprise, like regional physical distribution allocation center.This kind of operation pattern comparison meets the new physical distribution allocation requirement(Especially e-commerce logistics and distribution under).20th century 80's, the Western developed countries, such as the United States, France and Germany put forward a theory of modern logistics integration, application and guide the development of its logistics achieved significant results.Logistics is the logistics system integration as the core business from production through logistics, marketing companies, until the whole supply chain, consumers and systematic.Logistics integration is the development of logistics industry form, it must be fully developed third-party logistics and perfecting basis.Logistics integrated logistics management is a real problem, that is, specialization in logistics management and technical staff make full use of specialized logistics equipment, facilities, play a specialized logistics management experience, in order to obtain the best overall results.At the same time, Trends in the logistics integration has provided the good development environment and the giant market demand for the third party physical distribution's development.Fifth, the development of e-commerce can not be separated from objects of modern logistics This has become the people's consensus, that is why so many e-commerce company after years of exploration and the conclusions arrived at after.Today in e-commerce in full swing, many companies are still not solve the problem of logistics, freight service is still the bottleneck of the development of e-commerce.Claiming to solve the problem of a small number of logistics companies, but also made use of the national postal system, post office, city Express system, the delivery of books, audio-visual products such as small items.The more electronic commerce company adopted has requested the way which the factory, the business delivered goods to complete the customer.Sixth, e-commerce and modern logistics difficult to match E-commerce enterprises to establish a match with the modern logistics enterprises is not an easy task, first of all, business investment as a result of a huge logistics, land, warehouse, loading and unloading, sorting, distribution, and management need to invest a lot of money.China's logistics enterprises in most of the existing facilities behind the shortage of funds, a heavy burden, unable to transform quickly and e-commerce, security, reliable fall far short of the requirements.Secondly, the segmentation of logistics enterprises in the industry seriously, there is no unified logistics logistic management policies and practices.The transport sector ministries belong to different managements, warehousing sectors belong to different ministries and local.Circulation of documents caused by non-standard, non-uniform, non-GM, turbulent flow of goods, road toll stations, and charges a large amount of smooth flow of goods can not.Therefore, in order to make China's e-commerce to become new economic growth point and an important pillar of the national economy, the state and enterprises must pay great attention to the development of modern logistics and construction companies.In a sense said that the physical distribution facility's quality and physical distribution unobstructed, is a national comprehensive national strength and the economic development symbol.Seventh, electronic commerce and the modern physical distribution difficult to match solution

The construction of modern logistics facilities, it is necessary to the actual situation in our country.States should establish the authority of the logistics management agencies, logistics development of China's future direction, speed, policies, facilities, systems, etc.;co-ordination to resolve ports and terminals, railways, highways, waterways, aviation sites, the hub of the sector issues and policy division;the implementation of the work of the standardization of logistics;the logistics industry as the basic industry of the national economy, by providing loans, taxation, the introduction of such preferential treatment.And medium-sized cities should be planning the construction of an integrated logistics center to reduce the storage and transportation enterprises scattered phenomena.At the same time, the basis of logistics enterprises in China's poor, can not copy the developed countries of modern logistics equipment and mode of business.Attention should be paid to the existing storage area and the existing organization and integration of transport, logistics enterprises to mobilize existing positive factors and multi-channel transformation of the existing logistics facilities funding.E-commerce and modern logistics as the two major means of circulation, between closely related.E-commerce and logistics between the “actual situation accordingly,” the relationship between the status of the logistics industry will greatly enhance the supply chain will be a short circuit, and third-party logistics e-business environment will become the main form of logistics, procurement will be more convenient, the price will be lower, as a business flow, information flow and pooling of logistics centers, the implementation of centralized inventory, transport is divided into a transport and secondary transport, more convenient, “multimodal transport services” has been widely available, open-loop flow Information has become the main basis for logistics.However, e-commerce must have a modern logistics technology, it has to reflect the nature and the incomparable superiority to the maximum extent possible so that the two sides has been to facilitate transactions, access to benefits.电子商务与物流的关系

一、电子商务环境下物流模式

1、采用邮政特快专递服务的物流模式。企业或商家从网站或虚拟网站上获得消费者的购物单和家庭地址等信息，然后到附近的邮局办理特快专递手续将货物寄出，客户收到邮局的取货通知，到所在地邮局将货物取回，或由邮递员直接将货物送到顾客手中。

采用邮政特快专递服务方式具有方便、快捷的特点。但是收费偏高，且很难保证消费者在期望的时间内收到货物。

2、企业自建配送站的物流模式。企业在全国各地的客户密集地区设置自己的货物配送点，在获得购物信息后，由配送点的人员送货上门。这种物流模式可以满足客户的“即购即得”购物心理需求。但它也存在如下的问题：配送点的布局、人数的配备、商品的库存量等很难合理地确定。

3、借助第三方物流企业的模式。第三方物流就是企业将一部分或全部物流活动委托给其他的专业物流公司来完成。物流公司本身不拥有商品，而是与企业结成合作联盟，为客户提供服务。采用这种物流方式，服务是专业化、多功能和全方位的。但是如果送货量太小，送货费用一般比其他形式服务费用还要高。

二、电子商务环境下物流存在的问题

1、对物流理论的研究还不够系统和深入。当今物流管理理论的研究和实际应用都已取得了长足的进步，出现了许多新的理论。我国物流管理的研究者刚刚接触这些新理论，有待于进一步消化和吸收。

2、基础设施能力不足，技术装备落后，物流业相对落后。我国企业在物流方面的信息化、集成化管理与计算机应用技术水平普遍较低。交通运输能力仍不能满足行业的需求，主要运输通道供需矛盾依然突出。

3、有关电子商务环境下物流的法律法规有待完善。

4、物流行业人才培训和物流管理亟待加强。物流人才和信息化是实现物流现代化的根本条件，物流人才严重缺乏，无法为新的物流体系的建立提供足够的智力支持。

三、物流在电子商务环境影响下的发展趋势

1、多面化——物流业的发展方向。在电子商务时代，当物流发展到集约化阶段时，一体化的配送中心不仅提供仓储和运输服务，还必须开展配货、配送等各种提高附加值的流通加工服务项目。现代供应链管理，通过从供应链到消费者的综合运作使物流达到最优化。企业越来越追求全面的系统的综合效果，从这种战略角度出发，物流多面化是物流业的发展方向。

2、一流的服务——物流企业的追求。在电子商务影响下，物流业是介于供货方和购货方之间的第三方，是以服务为宗旨的。物流企业不仅要为本地区服务，更要进行长距离服务，因为客户不但希望得到好的服务，而且希望服务点不是一处，而是多处。因此，如何提供高质量的服务便成了物流企业管理和发展的核心课题。也只有拥有一流服务的物流企业，才能真正推动电子商务的发展。

3、信息化——现代物流业的必由之路。在电子商务时代，要提供最佳的服务，物流系统必须有良好的信息处理和传输系统。当货物从世界各地起运时，客户便可以获得到达时间、到货地点等信息，以便仓储、运输公司做好准备，使商品在几乎不停留的情况下快速流动，从而大大提高服务水平，降低成本，提高竞争力，也更好地体现出电子商务依托网络平台带来的方便快捷。

电子商务和物流作为现代流通的两大手段，有着密切的联系。电子商务作为网络时代的一种全新的交易模式，相对于传统交易方式是一场革命。但是，电子商务必须有现代化的物流技术的支持，才能体现出其无可比拟的先进性和优越性。只有大力发展现代化物流，电子商务才能更好发展。随着21世纪信息化、网络化的发展，必将促进电子商务与物流的有机结合，现代化物流电子化将成为大众生活中不可或缺的重要部分。

四、电子商务下物流模式的探讨

电子商务下物流和配送，是信息化、现代化、社会化的物流和配送。是指物流和配送企业采用网络化的计算机技术和现代化的硬件设备、软件系统及先进的管理手段，针对社会需求，严格地、守信用地按用户的订货要求，进行一系列分类、编配、整理、分工、配货等理货工作，定时、定点、定量地交给没有范围限度的各类用户，满足其对商品的需求。可以看出，这种新型的物流和配送是以一种全新的面貌，成为流通流域革新的先锋，代表了现代市场营销的主方向。新型的物流和配送可以使商品流通较传统的物流和配送方式更容易实现信息化、自动化、现代化、社会化、智能化、合理化、简单化，既减少生产企业库存，加速资金周转，提高物流效率，降低物流成本，又刺激了社会需求，有利于整个社会的宏观调空，也提高了整个社会的经济效益，促进市场经济的健康发展。传统物流和配送中心的类型可以分为以下几种：以制造商为主体的配送中心、以批发商为主体的配送中心、以零售业为主体的配送中心、以仓储运输业者为主体的配送中心。传统的配送模式可以分为以下几种：集货型配送模式、散货型配送模式和混合型配送模式。最后这种模式综合了前面两种配送模式的优点，可以对商品的流通的全过程进行有效控制。采用这种配送模式的流通企业，如区域性物流配送中心。这种运作模式比较符合新型物流配送的要求(特别是电子商务下的物流配送)。

20世纪80年代，西方发达国家，如美国、法国和德国等就提出了物流一体化的现代理论，应用和指导其物流发展取得了明显的效果。所谓物流一体化就是以物流系统为核心的由生产企业、经由物流企业、销售企业、直至消费者供应链的整体化和系统化。

物流一体化是物流产业化的发展形式，它必须以第三方物流充分发育和完善为基础。它的实质是一个物流管理的问题，即专业化物流管理人员和技术人员，充分利用专业化物流设备、设施，发挥专业化物流运作的管理经验，以求取得整体最优的效果。同时，物流一体化的趋势为第三方物流的发展提供了良好的发展环境和巨大的市场需求。

五、电子商物的发展离不开现代物流

这是当今人们的共识，也是许多电子商务公司在经过多年的探索之后得出来的结论。在电子商务如火如荼的今天，诸多公司仍未解决物流问题，货物送达依然是电子商发展的瓶颈。少数自称解决物流问题的公司，也只不过利用了邮局的全国邮递系统、城市的快递公司系统，交付图书、音像制品之类的小件物品。更多的电子商务公司则采取了要求厂家、商家送货的方式完成顾客购物全过程。

六、电子商务与现代物流难匹配

企业建立与电子商务相匹配的现代物流企业并非易事，首先、是由于物流企业投资巨大，土地、库房、装卸、分拣、配送、管理等需投入大量资金。我国现有的物流企业大都设施落后、资金短缺、负担沉重、无力改造，与电子商务的迅速、安全、可靠的要求相距甚远。其次、是物流企业行业割据严重，没有统一的物流管理部门统一物流政策和行为。运输部门分属不同的部委管理，仓储行业分属不同的部委和地方。造成流转单证不规范、不统一、不通用，货物紊流，道路收费站多、收费量大，货物不能畅流。因此，为了使我国的电子商务成为新的经济增长点和国民经济重要支柱，国家和企业必须高度关注现代物流企业发展和建设。在一定意义上说，物流设施的好坏和物流通畅度，是一个国家综合国力和经济发展的标志。

七、电子商务与现代物流难匹配的解决方法

建设现代物流设施，必须从我国的实际情况出发。国家应设立权威的物流管理机构，对我国未来物流发展方向、速度、政策、设施等进行系统的研究；统筹解决港口、码头、铁路、公路、水运、航空站点、枢纽的部门分割和政策性问题；落实物流工作标准化问题；把物流产业列为国民经济基础产业，给予贷款、税收、引进等优惠支持。大中城市应规划综合物流中心的建设，减少仓储运输企业的散乱现象。同时，由于我国的物流企业基础差，不能照搬发达国家现代物流企业的设备和模式。要重视现有仓储面积和现有运输工具的组织与整合，调动现有物流企业的积极性因素，多渠道筹资改造现有物流设施。

电子商务和物流作为现代流通的两大手段，相互之间有着密切的联系。电子商务与物流的之间存在着“虚实相应”的关系，物流业地位将大大提高，供应链将短路化，第三方物流将成为电子商务环境下物流企业的主要形式，采购将更方便，价格将更低，成为商流、信息流与物流的汇集中心，库存集中化得到实现，运输被划分为一次运输与二次运输，更方便的“多式联运服务”被广泛提供，开环流动的信息成为物流作业的主要依据。但是，电子商务必须有现代化的物流技术的支持，才能体现出其所具有的无可比拟的先进性和优越性，在最大程度上使交易双方得到便利，获得效益。

第四篇：市场营销_外文翻译_外文文献_英文文献_顾客满意策略与顾客满意

顾客满意策略与顾客满意营销

原文来源：《Marketing Customer Satisfaction》

自20世纪八十年代末以来,顾客满意战略已日益成为各国企业占有更多的顾客份额,获得竞争优势的整体经营手段。

一、顾客满意策略是现代企业获得顾客“货币选票”的法宝

随着时代的变迁,社会物质财富的极大充裕,顾客中的主体———消费者的需求也先后跨越了物质缺乏的时代、追求数量的时代、追求品质的时代,到了20世纪八十年代末进入了情感消费时代。在我国,随着经济的高速发展,我们也已迅速跨越了物质缺乏时代、追求数量的时代乃至追求品质的时代,到今天也逐步迈进情感消费时代。在情感消费时代,各企业的同类产品早已达到同时、同质、同能、同价,消费者追求的已不再是质量、功能和价格,而是舒适、便利、安全、安心、速度、跃动、环保、清洁、愉快、有趣等,消费者日益关注的是产品能否为自己的生活带来活力、充实、舒适、美感和精神文化品位,以及超越消费者期望值的售前、售中、售后服务和咨询。也就是说,今天人们所追求的是具有“心的满足感和充实感”的商品,是高附加值的商品和服务,追求价值观和意识多元化、个性化和无形的满足感的时代已经来临。

与消费者价值追求变化相适应的企业间的竞争,也由产品竞争、价格竞争、技术竞争、广告竞争、品牌竞争发展到现今的形象竞争、信誉竞争、文化竞争和服务竞争,即顾客满意竞争。这种竞争是企业在广角度、宽领域的时空范围内展开的高层次、体现综合实力的竞争。它包括组织创新力、技术创新力、管理创新力、产业预见力、产品研发力、员工向心力、服务顾客力、顾客亲和力、同行认同力、社会贡献力、公关传播沟通力、企业文化推动力、环境适应力等等。这些综合形象力和如何合成综合持久的竞争力,这就是CS策略所要解决的问题。CS时代,企业不再以“自己为中心”,而是以“顾客为中心”；“顾客为尊”、“顾客满意”不再是流于形式的口号,而是以实实在在的行动为基础的企业经营的一门新哲学。企业不再以质量达标,自己满意为经营理念,而是以顾客满意,赢得顾客高忠诚度为经营理念。企业经营策略的焦点不再以争取或保持市场占有率为主,而是以争取顾客满意为经营理念。因此,营销策略的重心不再放在竞争对手身上而是放在顾客身上,放在顾客现实的、潜在的需求上。当企业提供的产品和服务达到了顾客事先的期望值,顾客就基本满意；如果远远超越顾客的期望值,且远远高于其他同行,顾客才真正满意；如果企业能不断地或长久地令顾客满意,顾客就会忠诚。忠诚的顾客不仅会经常性地重复购买,还会购买企业其它相关的产品或服务；忠诚的顾客不仅会积极向别人推荐他所买的产品,而且对企业竞争者的促销活动具有免疫能力一个不满意的顾客会将不满意告诉16-20个人,而每一个被告知者会再传播给12-15个人。这样,一个不满意者会影响到二、三百人。在互联网普及的今天,其影响则更大。据美国汽车业的调查,一个满意者会引发8笔潜在的生意,其中至少有一笔会成交。而另一项调查表明,企业每增加5%的忠诚顾客,利润就会增长25%-95%。一个企业的80%的利润来自20%的忠诚顾客；而获取一个新顾客的成本是维持一个老顾客成本的6倍。所以,美国著名学者唐·佩珀斯指出:决定一个企业成功与否的关键不是市场份额,而是在于顾客份额。

于是,企业纷纷通过广泛细致的市场调研、与消费者直接接触、顾客信息反馈等方式来了解顾客在各方面的现实需求和潜在需求。依靠对企业满意忠诚的销售、服务人员,定期、定量地对顾客满意度进行综合测定,以便准确地把握企业经营中与“顾客满意”目标的差距及其重点领域,从而进一步改善企业的经营活动。依靠高亲和力的企业文化、高效率的人文管理和全员共同努力,不断地向顾客提供高附加值的产品,高水准的亲情

般的服务,以赢得顾客不断变化和提升的满意度,赢得更多的顾客份额。如海尔始终把顾客需求放在第一位,站在顾客的角度考虑产品开发、设计,提供个性化、人性化实用产品,从拉幕式彩电到最新推出的“换台不晃眼彩电”,从小小神童洗衣机到手搓式洗衣机,从小王子冰箱到“智慧眼”变频空调,从17个小时制出“迈克冷柜”到售后一条龙星级服务,无一不是为满足顾客需求而提供的令其满意的超值产品和服务。又如微软的每一种产品都集中了世界上最优秀的开发人员,推出比顾客想要的还要好的产品,同时形成全球化销售的规模经济,把价格降到最低。而这正是微软20年来成功的秘决。

综上所述,情感消费时代,决定生产经营何种产品和提供什么样服务的权力已不再属于企业,而是属于消费者,衡量企业效率以及存在价值的决定权转移到了顾客手中,企业应尽量迎合顾客,超值满足顾客,以尽可能地从顾客那里获得“货币选票”。而CS策略正是获取这种选票的制胜法宝。

二、顾客满意营销策略的主要步骤

第一,在企业文化层面上确立以顾客为中心,顾客利益至上,以顾客满意为目标的经营理念。

CS理论中的顾客指的是内部员工和外部顾客(包括经销商、批发商、代理商、最终消费者和原材料供应商、合作者等),顾客满意包括员工和外部顾客的满意,顾客忠诚亦然。企业成功的机制在于顾客满意与忠诚,员工是顾客满意和忠诚的关键人员。员工对企业的满意度和忠诚度是顾客对企业产品和服务满意度和忠诚度的基础,顾客满意度和忠诚度是员工行为的必然结果。没有员工的满意与忠诚,就不可能创造出令顾客满意的产品和提供超值服务,顾客自然就不满意不忠诚,离企业而去。当员工满意与忠诚时就会在与顾客接触中以极大的热情投入自己的智力资本,创造性地为顾客服务,并能及时发现顾客需求动向,及时提升产品和服务的附加值,紧紧抓住顾客的心,令其满意。联邦快递发现,当内部员工满意率提高到85%时,他们的顾客满意率高达95%,且企业的利润也就十分乐观。在这里员工的态度决定着一切。

因此,企业必须将顾客满意的经营理念渗透于员工的头脑中,体现在管理中,对员工忠诚,以他们研发产品、制造产品、提供营销服务令顾客满意。如九头鸟”,员工得到的教育是一切以顾客为中心是企业经营的最高原则。顾客是恩人,是朋友,是老师,是顾客给了我们工作的机会,工作的价值,工作的乐趣和工作的意义。我们应该发自内心地真诚地感谢顾客,顾客的满意就是我们的工作目标,为顾客创造最有价值的产品和服务是我们的最高目标。在此原则指导下,宁愿让自己吃亏不能让顾客吃亏已成为“九头鸟”员工的行为准则。让顾客感到在“九头鸟”消费是一种享受,是一种物超所值的享受。顾客在付出成本后,对自己的消费有一个期望值,而消费者最后得到的消费在其心中也会有一个评价的标准来衡量,如果物超所值,他以后就会再来,如物有所值,他以后可能会再来；否则,消费者将不会再来。所以,“九头鸟”的目的就是为消费者提供物超所值的产品和服务。有如此经营理念及其指导下的令顾客满意营销,“九头鸟”红火于京城就不难理解了。

第二,让顾客参与产品设计与研发。

企业以顾客为中心,经过市场细分,广泛的调研了解目标公众的需求和价值,站在顾客的角度考虑产品开发、设计,提供个性化、人性化的高附加值的产品和服务,是正确的,但必须让用户一起参与产品设计。利用互联网和CAD技术与顾客建立有效的沟通和信息交流,及时掌握顾客的各种需求信息和顾客价值,鼓励各种信息来源渠道对顾客信息库进行及时的更新。经过分析、总结,了解顾客的本质需求,并使顾客本质需求信息成为企业各个部门的共享资源。以此设计产品,提供令顾客满意的服务。现在,许多公司采用一种名为:“产品配置器”的系统来帮助用户一起参与产品设计。即在计算机里存放了所

有产品模块的最新信息,并随时更换,营销人员在销售现场通过因特网,根据用户需要或与用户一起配置出其所需要的能满足其价值的产品。上海通用公司生产的汽车令经营商和用户非常满意,就是因为让用户一起参与了产品的设计。而海尔无论是为四川农民生产的能洗地瓜的洗衣机,为上海用户生产的“小王子冰箱”,还是换台不晃眼的彩电,海尔的“智慧眼”变频空调,星级一条龙售后服务等,都是依据用户的需要,吸收了顾客参与产品设计的建议,而设计开发的令顾客满意的富有人性化的超值商品和服务,自然就赢得了更多顾客的芳心。

第三,提供令顾客满意的全程服务和个性服务。

全程服务是针对顾客的购物与消费每一环节所进行的细致而又深入的服务,心的服务。全程服务就是消费者从产生消费欲望那一刻起到商品使用价值耗尽为止的整个过程,对消费者的细心呵护,使消费者与自己的品牌紧密相连,让消费者享受文化、享受服务、感受理念、感到受益,心甘情愿地消费你的产品或服务,令消费者在每一个层面都感到完全满意,并能赢得客户的忠诚。销售阶段———保证顾客得到必须及时优质的服务,售前咨询培训参与,传递知识信息,创造购物需求,令顾客理性选择,帮助顾客购买自己实用称心的商品；售中支持提供方便,最大限度地发挥商品功能,让顾客体味到温情和价值；售后增值反馈回访服务,使顾客感受到温馨和真情。如一老太太买的海尔空调,回家途中被黑心司机拉跑了,海尔得知后,立即免费给老太太送去一台海尔新空调,并决定以后送货到位。内蒙一用户因家中失火,将刚买的海尔冰箱烧坏,海尔接电后从计算机服务网络中查到该用户详细住址,派专人专车用4天时间赶到为其修好冰箱。这种超值服务必然赢得顾客超期望值的满意。

在如今情感消费时代,人们追求“心的满足感和充实感”的商品,是高附加值极富个性化价值的商品,追求价值观和意识多元化、个性化和无形的满足感。因此,企业不再将注意力投入于全体消费者的一般需求差异上,应针对追求各异的个性消费者,量体裁衣,设计并开发企业的产品及服务项目,以适应当今个性化和多样化的消费趋势。面对越来越复杂的消费倾向,企业要驾驭顾客需求,进行个性化营销,关键在于建立顾客资料库与顾客信息反馈系统,进行客户关系管理,不断收集了解消费者的要求和偏好的变化,以及对企业新的期望,以便更好地为顾客提供个性化服务。

第四,培育顾客忠诚。

在餐饮业,满意顾客中品牌转换者的比例竟高达60%到80%。这说明满意的顾客并不一定能成为忠诚顾客。而一个企业80%的利润来自20%的忠诚顾客,营销顾客集Aracature Corp.的总裁Larry Light在Advertising Age杂志上说,从忠诚顾客身上得到的收益是非忠诚顾客的9倍。沃尔玛之所以能够持续增长成为500强的老大,根本原因在于它吸引客户忠诚的经营能力。

顾客忠诚是来自顾客感受到的、通过双向沟通所传递的价值和相互关系,是通过企业不懈地提供超值产品或服务而取得的。要使顾客忠诚,企业最高管理层必须有长期不懈的决心和资金支持,对企业的忠诚顾客进行界定,了解顾客的需求是怎样形成的,他们离去的原因是什么,买了谁的产品,为什么?认识并创建顾客忠诚的激励因素。培育忠诚顾客的营销方法有两种:

一是要妥善解决顾客的抱怨。只要妥善地处理顾客报怨,82%的顾客会再度购买商品。妥善处理顾客报怨,要求企业确立一套良好的人性化的“报怨管理”制度。第一,树立“顾客的报怨,是给企业最好的礼物,对改善企业的经营管理有好处”的观念；第二,企业必须确立有效的报怨处理政策和制度,并训练员工,正确对待顾客报怨,站在顾客的角度处理顾客报怨的问题；第三,处理顾客的部门要轮换,以便各业务单位都能及时了解顾客的满意度,并获得处理顾客报怨的经验；第四,建立所有顾客报怨资料库,以便及时

处理并防止公关危机的发生。

二是建立忠诚顾客数据库。只有通过数据库进行跟踪调查分析,才能确切知道企业拥有的顾客份额会增加多少,达到某一份额需要多久。忠诚顾客数据库的核心是关联数据库,它由一系列记录营销项目不同侧面的子库组成。忠诚顾客数据库,可以为员工及时提供超值服务所需的资料；为收集所有与顾客有关的细节资料创造条件；强化同顾客的快捷联系；为开发新产品和提供新的服务创造条件；与顾客进行长期互动的双向沟通,以便为其提供潜在需求的、似曾想到又非想到的满足其期望价值的产品或服务。

第五篇：外文翻译---人机工程学与造型设计（写写帮推荐）

Ergonomics and Design Modern high-tech society of rapid development, is gradually changing to the production of human life in every aspect the display of human greatness and strength to conquer unparalleled wisdom, but it has brought new human anguish and anxiety That is the feeling of loneliness, alienation and emotional imbalance.In a high-tech society, people would seek a balance--a high-tech and high emotional balance, A high and high human rational balance.Technology progressed, the greater the desire to balance strong.So John that : “No matter where needed compensatory high emotion.Our high-tech society more We hope to create more high emotional environment, the techniques used to balance the software side of rigid side, ” Such emotion and humanity to achieve balance, and human life as closely related to the design of the responsibility.Goods modeling and ergonomics is combined.They can be described as : Center for psychological, physiological radius, used to establish and things(products)harmonious relations between the way to maximize the potential of excavation, a comprehensive and balanced use of muscle energy, the protection of human health, and thereby increase productivity.From the context of industrial design, the big aerospace systems, urban planning, infrastructure construction, factory automation, mechanical equipment, transport, small furniture, clothing, stationery and flower pots, cups, bowls and chopsticks production, such as the creation of life with the “objects” in the design and manufacture must take the “human factor” as an important condition to consider.If the product categories divided into professional supplies and general supplies, professional supplies in ergonomics, on the other hand, there will be more consideration, It relies a lot on the level of physiology;and general products it must balance the psychological problems need more aesthetic and the design trend, which is to be the product of human nature-based demand.Ergonomics application areas : computer terminal : Design and layout : computer products and peripherals design and layout, computer terminal workstations, display equipment and rules of the screen health and safety, ergonomic office environment;2 industrial design application, “Information design and market / user research, medical equipment, seating comfort and design study seating design and classification, classification and selection of furniture;man-machine interface design and evaluation : the man-machine interface design and development, knowledge systems, man-machine interface forms, HCI/MMI prototype GUI prototype computer terminals : Design and layout : computer products and peripherals design and layout, computer terminal workstations, display equipment and rules of the screen health and safety, ergonomic office environment;5 office ergonomics and design : office automation, office equipment and office design, layout and ergonomics;other special ergonomic applications : nuclear energy, the military man-machine engineering, process control, cultural surveys and research methods Automatic Speech Recognition；,Many aspects of the application of ergonomics.Well, for a product is how to evaluate it in ergonomics standard with regard? Germany design center, for example, in selecting the annual quality products, ergonomic set on the following criteria :

1)products and human dimensions, shape and strength match;2)the product is easy to manage and make good use;

3)to prevent the use of operator injury and accidents at the wrong time with the danger;

4)the practical operation of the units;placement of the components on the significance of it can no doubt be identified and tracked;5)whether or not the products to facilitate cleaning, maintenance and repair.So-called ergonomics, which is the application of anthropometry, the human body mechanics, work physiology, working on the fields of psychology research methods, the human body structure and function characteristics, Body parts of the size, weight, body surface area, density, the focus of some of the human activities in the mutual relations and the scope of the human and structural characteristics of parameters;also part of the human effort, the scope of its activities, movement speed, movement frequency, focus changes and movements of human habits function parameters, the analysis of the visual, auditory, Skin Sense and sensitivity, and other sensory characteristics of function;Analysis of labor in the various physiological changes, energy consumption, The mechanism of fatigue on various labor load adaptability;To investigate the impact of the work of psychological factors and psychological factors on the efficiency of the impact.Ergonomics Research content and design disciplines for the role can be summarized as the following :

Industrial design considerations ”human factors“ for the human scale parameters : anthropometry, human biomechanics, physiology, psychology and other disciplines of study to human muscle structure and characteristics can be studied with parts of the human body, the size, body weight, body surface area, density, the focus of some of the human activities in the mutual relations and the scope and structure of the human body such as the characteristic parameters for each part of human hair of the scope, the scope of activities，movement speed, frequency, the focus changes when he inertia and dynamic parameters of the visual, auditory, tactile, and olfactory sensory muscular limbs, which can be analyzed in the labor physiological changes, energy consumption, fatigue and work load of various adaptations, investigate the psychological impact of the work of the state, and psychological factors on the efficiency of the impact.Ergonomic research, industrial design fully consider ”human factors“ for the human scale structure, physiological criteria and the psychological scales, and other data, such data can be effectively applied to the industrial design.Industrial design ”products“ function that provides a reasonable scientific basis : a modern industrial design, If pure functional material creative activities without considering the needs of ergonomics, it will be creative activities failure.Therefore, how to solve the ”product“ and people related to the function of the optimization, created with the physiological and psychological muscle coordination can be the ”product“, which will be contemporary industrial design, in a functional issue a new topic.Ergonomic principles and laws of the designer before the design consideration.Ergonomics notable feature is that the serious study of the human-machine, the three elements of the environment itself on the basis of characteristics, not simply focus on the individual elements of the fine or not, but would use ”objects“ and designed ”objects“ and with ”objects“ by the coexistence of the environment as a system to study.Ergonomics in the system will be known as ”--machines--environmental system.“ The system, man-machine-environment interactions between three elements, interdependent relationship determines the overall system performance.The subject of man-machine system design theory is that the scientific use of the three elements of the organic links between the search for the best system parameters.The general design approach is usually clear in the whole system under the prerequisite that will focus on analyzing and studying the people and the airplane, Environment three elements of the system's overall performance, such as aircraft systems and the division of functions;tie;how to adapt to the environment;Machines on what is the impact on the environment and other issues, through constant revision and perfecting the three elements of the structure, ultimately ensure that the optimum combination is achieved.This is the ergonomics of the Industrial Design opened up new ideas, and offers a unique design methods and theory.Design and ergonomics of the arts and cultural atmosphere and man-machine interface using inexpensive to make products more user-in the human self-transformation gradually returning to the material world, to gradually create a human living space of their own.Design elements of the modeling for the design concerns the most important aspect The essence of design and characteristics must pass some form of which is clear, specific，to fruition.In the past, for a very long time it was known industrial design as ”the industrial images,“ although not very scientific and norms, However, the number of shows in the design modeling of the importance and attention was.”Product Semantics,“ Modeling has become an important symbol.Italian designers stalled Kosovo roots in the 1980s designed Bra chairs, the chairs using the traditional structure, However, it covers the use of soft and full of design curves of the female body shape, and people get comfortable and soft to the imagination.very interesting.The design and colors have to rely on themselves to form can exist, we must shape if it is a reflection of specific significance.But color is a specific configuration and integration, it will have a very strong feeling and color features and a powerful spiritual impact.Contemporary American visual arts psychologists Mexico said : ”various colors to arouse emotions and express their feelings, even affect our normal physiological feelings.“ So is the general aesthetic color most commonly in the form of colors design humanized expression of the important factors.Bauhaus modern design uphold the tradition of modernist design, mostly black, white, gray and other colors of the neutral expression of language, reflect a calm, rational product characteristics.Modern Design strongly opposed empty and the few decorations, decorative anti-known.However, in line with mechanized technology for large-scale production, under the premise of the decorative design can really increase the taste and character.enable design at T.J.Modern designers often use industrial design or add natural materials, through material adjustment and changes to increase natural amenities or the sentimental mood to create a strong emotional response.Modern methods of production have a standardized design and process requirements on the design of spectrum and type series.Its purpose is to seek to design and the use of standardized mass production design means, to achieve reunification of the normative sense of beauty and order.Product design must see clearly the development of science and technology trends, pay close attention to new theories, new technologies, new processes, the emergence of new materials should be used as much as possible.full play to advanced scientific and technological research results into practical function of the value of the media, design aesthetic characteristics of the times and cultural inclinations products.Design products with the conditions of the times and social environment and social and psychological accordingly to reflect the change is inevitable.Research and forecast the trend of this change, tend to grasp the design and characteristics of the designer is extremely important.Because of all the world's countries and regions, the nation's geographical location and the environment, political and economic conditions, Cultural traditions and beliefs of different cases have developed its own unique character, hobbies, interests, habits and the pursuit This requires different branches of product design with different art forms and styles, corresponding to the formation of a nation's character.Design is to take the initiative to understand the user's present and future needs, and attention to the different needs of different levels, constantly designed to meet the different needs of various user products.Design is a kind of people's thinking of the form, Design is all the beautiful creatures entrusted to be the purpose and achievement, and outstanding design is the embodiment of truth, virtue and beauty.Designed to function from the past to meet the increased further to the right person in the spiritual care, which is designed into the culture, increase the value-added products of the culture of lies, this is the responsibility of the designer.With the level of human understanding gradually improved, deepened and increased human knowledge will be the ”realm of necessity“ to the ”realm of freedom“, which is the development of knowledge essential law.And the design of mankind will inevitably raise their awareness to a higher level, that the human society has been pursued by the idealistic, the arts and the way of living creatures, to consciously or unconsciously, by the pursuit of material needs of both the main and the main pursuit of the spirit of enjoyment.Design of the continuous development and improvement in the process that is the understanding, thinking and feeling constantly improve the process, human design is the emotional, cultural and ethical spirit of the mapping.Design is no ”intelligence“ and there is ”sentimental“.”Intelligence“ that the mapping of the human ordinary design;Design is no life.Also have life, ”life“ that contains a human right in the design and use of the process.All human societies have been hallmarks of the human spirit awareness of the brand, the design is no exception.Let me quote a designer of the United States said the timing to end this paper : ”People always think that the design of 3-D : aesthetic, technology and the economy, but more important is the fourth dimension : human nature."

人机工程学与造型设计

现代社会高科技的迅猛发展，正逐步改变着人类生产生活的方方面面，在展示人类伟大的征服力量和无与伦比的聪明才智的同时，也带给人类新的苦恼和忧虑，那便是人情的孤独、疏远和感情的失衡。在高科技的社会里，人们必然去追求一种平衡——一种高科技与高情感的平衡，一种高理性和高人性的平衡。技术越进步，这种平衡愿望就越强烈。所以约翰·奈斯比特认为：“无论何处都需要有补偿性的高情感。我们的社会里高技术越多，我们就越希望创造高情感的环境，用技术的软件一面来平衡硬性的一面”，而这种情感和人性平衡的实现，作为与人类生活息息相关的设计是责无旁贷的。

产品的造型与人机工程无疑是结合在一起的。我们可以将它们描述为：以心理为圆心，生理为半径，用以建立人与物(产品)之间和谐关系的方式，最大限度地挖掘人的潜能，综合平衡地使用人的肌能，保护人体健康，从而提高生产率。仅从工业设计这一范畴来看，大至宇航系统、城市规划、建筑设施、自动化工厂、机械设备、交通工具，小至家具、服装、文具以及盆、杯、碗筷之类各种生产与生活所创造的 “ 物 ”，在设计和制造时都必须把 “ 人的因素 ” 作为一个重要的条件来考虑。若将产品类别区分为专业用品和一般用品的话，专业用品在人机工程上则会有更多的考虑，它比较偏重于生理学的层面；而一般性产品则必须兼顾心理层面的问题，需要更多的符合美学及潮流的设计，也就是应以产品人性化的需求为主。

人机工程的应用领域：

1计算机终端：设计与布局：计算机产品和外设的设计与布局、计算机终端工作站、显示屏设备与规则、显示屏健康与安全、办公环境人机工程研究；

2工业设计应用“信息设计、市场/用户研究、医疗设备、座椅的设计与舒适性研究、座椅设计与分类、家具分类与选择；

3人机界面设计与评价：人机界面的设计与发展、知识系统、人机界面形式、HCI/MMI原型、GUI原型

4计算机终端：设计与布局：计算机产品和外设的设计与布局、计算机终端工作站、显示屏设备与规则、显示屏健康与安全、办公环境人机工程研究；

5办公室人机工程与设计：办公自动化、办公室和办公设备设计、办公室设计人机

工程；

其它特殊的人机工程应用：原子能、军队人机工程、过程控制、文化调查、调查与研究方法、自动语音识别；等等，许多方面都应用到了人机工程学。

那么，对于一件产品是如何来评价它在人机工程学方面是否符合规范呢 ? 以德国设计中心为例，在评选每年优良产品时，人机工程上所设定的标准为：

1)产品与人体的尺寸、形状及用力是否配合；

2)产品是否顺手和好使用；

3)是否防止了使用人操作时意外伤害和错用时产生的危险；

4)各操作单元是否实用；各元件在安置上能否使其意义毫无疑问的被辨认；

5)产品是否便于清洗、保养及修理。

所谓人机工程学，亦即是应用人体测量学、人体力学、劳动生理学、劳动心理学等学科的研究方法，对人体结构特征和机能特征进行研究，提供人体各部分的尺寸、重量、体表面积、比重、重心以及人体各部分在活动时的相互关系和可及范围等人体结构特征参数；还提供人体各部分的出力范围、活动范围、动作速度、动作频率、重心变化以及动作时的习惯等人体机能特征参数，分析人的视觉、听觉、触觉以及肤觉等感觉器官的机能特性；分析人在各种劳动时的生理变化、能量消耗、疲劳机理以及人对各种劳动负荷的适应能力；探讨人在工作中影响心理状态的因素以及心理因素对工作效率的影响等。

人机工程学研究内容及其对于设计学科的作用可以概括为以下几方面： 为工业设计中考虑“人的因素”提供人体尺度参数：应用人体测量学、人体力学、生理学、心理学等学科的研究方法，对人体结构特征和肌能特征进行研究，提供人体各部分的尺寸、体重、体表面积、比重、重心以及人体各部分在活动时相互关系和可及范围等人体结构特征参数提供人体各部分的发力范围、活动范围、动作速度、频率、重心变化以及动作时惯性等动态参数分析人的视觉、听觉、触觉、嗅觉以及肢体感觉器官的肌能特征，分析人在劳动时的生理变化、能量消耗、疲劳程度以及对各种劳动负荷的适应能力，探讨人在工作中影响心理状态的因素，及心理因素对工作效率的影响等。人体工程学的研究，为工业设计全面考虑“人的因素”提供了人体结构尺度，人体生理尺度和人的心理尺度等数据，这些数据可有效地运用到工业设计中去。

为工业设计中“产品”的功能合理性提供科学依据：现代工业设计中，如搞纯物质功能的创作活动，不考虑人机工程学的需求，那将是创作活动的失败。因此，如何解决“产品”与人相关的各种功能的最优化，创造出与人的生理和心理肌能相协调的“产品”，这将是当今工业设计中，在功能问题上的新课题。人体工程学的原理和规律将设计师在设计前考虑的问题。

人机工程学的显著特点是，在认真研究人、机、环境三个要素本身特性的基础上，不单纯着眼于个别要素的优良与否，而是将使用 “ 物 ” 的人和所设计的 “ 物 ” 以及人与 “ 物 ” 所共处的环境作为一个系统来研究。在人机工程学中将这个系统称为 “ 人 —— 机 —— 环境 ” 系统。这个系统中，人、机、环境三个要素之间相互作用、相互依存的关系决定着系统总体的性能。本学科的人机系统设计理论，就是科学地利用三个要素间的有机联系来寻求系统的最佳参数。

系统设计的一般方法，通常是在明确系统总体要求的前提下，着重分析和研究人、机、环境三个要素对系统总体性能的影响，如系统中人和机的职能如何分工；如何配合；环境如何适应人；机对环境又有何影响等问题，经过不断修正和完善三要素的结构方式，最终确保系统最优组合方案的实现。这是人机工程学为工业设计开拓了新的思路，并提供了独特的设计方法和有关理论依据。

造型设计与人机工程带来的艺术文化气息和人机相宜的使用界面使产品更具人性化，人类的自我在逐渐回归中改造着物质世界，创造着逐渐属于人类自己的生活空间。

设计中的造型要素是人们对设计关注点中最重要的一方面，设计的本质和特性必须通过一定的造型而得以明确化、具体化、实体化。在过去很长一段时间里人们称工业设计为“工业造型”，虽然不很科学和规范，但多少说明造型在设计中的重要性和引人注目之处。在“产品语意学”中，造型成了重要的象征符号。意大利设计师扎维·沃根于80年代设计的Bra椅子，采用了传统椅子的结构，但椅背却运用了设计柔软而富有曲线美的女性形体造型，人坐上去柔软舒适而浮想联翩，极富趣味性。

在设计中色彩必须借助和依附于造型才能存在，必须通过形状的体现才具有具体的意义。但色彩一经与具体的形相结合，便具有极强的感情色彩和表现特征，具有强大的精神影响。当代美国视觉艺术心理学家布鲁墨说：“色彩唤起各种情绪，表达感情，甚至影响我们正常的生理感受”。因而色彩是一般审美中最普遍的形式，色彩成

为设计人性化表达的重要因素。现代设计秉承包豪斯的现代主义设计传统，多以黑、白、灰等中性色彩为表达语言，体现出冷静、理性的产品特性。现代设计极力反对虚饰，以少装饰、反装饰著称。但在适应机械化大生产技术条件的前提下，适当的装饰确可以增加设计的情趣和个性，使设计物灿然生色。现代设计师常在工业设计中采用或加进自然材料，通过材料的调整和改变以增加自然情趣或温情脉脉的情调，使人产生强烈的情感共鸣。

现代化的生产方式产生了规范化的设计和程序，规定了设计物的型谱和系列。其目的旨在设计中力求采用标准化和系列化的设计手段，以实现统一中的规范美和秩序感。产品造型设计必须洞察科学技术的发展动向，密切注意新理论、新技术、新工艺、新材料的出现，应尽可能地加以运用，充分起将先进科技研究成果转化为具有实用功能的商品的媒介，设计出符合时代美学特征和文化倾向的产品。设计的产品随时代条件与社会环境和社会心理反映作相应的变化是必然的，研究与预测这种变化的潮流，把握设计倾向和特点对设计者来说是极其重要的。由于世界上各个国家、地区、民族所处的地理位置和环境不同，政治经济条件、文化传统和宗都信仰不同，形成了自己特有的性格、爱好、情趣、习惯和追求，这就要求跨地区的产品造型设计具有不同的艺术表现形式和格调，形成相应的民族风格。造型设计就是要主动了解使用者现在和将来的需求，并注意不同需求层次的差异性，不断设计出能满足不同使用者的各种需求的产品。

设计是一种把人们的思想赋予形态的工作，设计就是将所有的人造物赋予美好的目的并加以实现，优秀的设计是真善美的体现。设计从过去对功能的满足进一步上升到了对人的精神关怀，这是在设计中融入文化，增加产品的文化附加值的根本所在，这也是设计师的责任。随着人类认识水平的逐渐提高、深化和上升，人类认识将由“必然王国”走向“自由王国”，这是认识发展的必然规律。而人类的设计也必将随着自身认识的提高走向更高的境界，即人类社会所孜孜以求的理想化、艺术化的造物方式和生活方式，由不自觉走向自觉，由追求物质需要为主到两者兼顾并以追求精神享受为主。设计的不断发展和提升的过程即是人的认识、思想和情感的不断完善的过程，人类设计是人类情感、文化精神及伦理道德的映照。设计是无“情”的，又是有“情”的。“情”即映射于人类普普通通的设计中；设计是无生命的。又是有生命的，“生

命”即蕴含于人类对物的设计和使用过程中。人类社会的一切都已打上了人类精神意识的烙印，设计也不例外。让我引用一位美国设计师普罗斯说过的话来结束本文：“人们总以为设计有三维：美学、技术和经济，然而更重要是第四维：人性。”