H.H.Stern 语言教学的基本概念总结资料

第一篇：H.H.Stern 语言教学的基本概念总结资料

语言教学的基本概念总结资料

第一部分 扫除障碍 clearing the ground Chapter one L1

L1 terms are used to indicate, first of all, that a person has acquired the language in infancy and early childhood and generally within the family.Secondly, the L1 terms signal a characteristic level of proficiency in the language.A person's first language is a basis for sociolinguistic identity.L1 language is also called the native language or primary language, consequently, it would be best to reserve the term “native language” for the language of early-childhood acquisition and “primary language” for the language of dominant or preferred use when the distinction has to be made, with the terms first language to cover both uses, allowing the context to make clear the distinction.L2

The term second language has two meanings.First, it refers to the chronology of language learning.A second language is any language acquired later than the native language.This definition deliberately leaves open how much later second languages are acquired.At one extreme the second language learning process takes place at an early age when the native language command is still rudimentary.At the other, it may take place in adult life when the L1 acquisition process is virtually completed or slowed down.Or, it may take place at any stage between these two extremes.Secondly, the term second language is used to refer to the level of language command in comparison with a primary or dominant language.In this sense, second language indicates a lower level of actual or believed proficiency.Hence second means also „weaker‟ or „secondary‟.Bilingualism Bilingualism can be used in two situations.When we say “ Canada is a bilingual country”, we are making a statement about the objectivity or legal status of two languages in that country.It does not necessarily mean that every individual in that country is bilingual.It may mean no more than that some people in Canada are native speakers of one language and other people are native speakers of the other language.The second use of the term, namely that of personal bilingualism, implies(a)notions of manner of language acquisition and(b)level of proficiency in the two languages.With regard to(a), it suggests a simultaneous language learning process in two languages which is analogous to first or native language acquisition in one language.With reference to the level of command, being bilingualism is usually understood to mean a high level of proficiency in two languages.In more technical discussions the use of the concept of bilingualism in this respect has changed.It has tended to be more broadly defined so that any proficiency level in more than one language can be referred to as bilingualism.Second versus foreign language In contrasting second and foreign language there is today consensus that a necessary distinction is to be made between a non-native language learnt and used within one country to which the term second language has been applied, and a non-native language learnt and used with reference to a speech community outside national or territorial boundaries to which the term foreign language is commonly given.A second language usually has official status or a recognized function within a country which a foreign language has not.The purposes of second language are quite different from foreign language.Second language is needed for the full participation in the political or economical life of the nation since it is the official language or educational language, while the foreign language learners hold a variety of purposes in mind, such as traveling or communicating with native speakers.A second language, because it is used within the country, is learnt with much more environmental support than a foreign language whose speech community may be thousands of miles away.A foreign language usually requires more formal instruction and other measures compensating for the lack of environmental support.By contrast, a second language is often learnt informally because of its widespread use within the environment.International language / intranational language Second and foreign language learning both imply a specified speech community or communities as a territorial reference or contact group.International or intranational language lack this characteristic.Thus, English in India which has the status of an official language but has no specified reference group, is learnt as a means of intranational communication.If English is learnt in many countries across the world, this is not only with reference to specified English-speaking territories, but as a means of international communication across national boundaries among speakers of other language.For this role the term international language has been proposed.Language learning The psychological concept of learning includes not only learning of skills and acquisition of knowledge.It refers also to learning to learn and learning to think.Language learning is also widely concerned, it includes all kinds of language learning.From the perspective of the psychology of learning, learning has been approached in two main ways:(1)through theoretical and experimental studies and(2)through empirical studies in educational settings.With regards to the(1), broadly speaking, two groups can be distinguished.The first, derived from the British associationist school of philosophy, adopts a largely environmentalist view of man.Modern milestone in the development of this position are Watson‟s behaviorism, Skinner‟s operate conditioning, etc.Theories in this school of thought, so-called S-R theories, are characterized by emphasis on externally observable response to specific stimuli, an empirical and experimental approach, and the avoidance of subjective or mentalist concept.The psychology of learning, according to this viewpoint, therefore, is a study of learning phenomena which disregards the intentions, the thinking, the conscious planning and internal processes of the learner.The other trend of thought on learning is cognitive approaches to learning, of which an early representative was Gestalt psychology.It had laid emphasis on innate organizing principles in human perception, cognition, sensorimotor skills, learning, and even in social conduct.For Gestalt theory, it is impossible to represent human learning without concepts of subjective experience, such as the sudden click of understanding.Gestalt psychology was able to throw light on perceptual and cognitive learning by describing and demonstrating the subjective cognitive experiences of the learner with such concepts as „whole and part‟, field, structure, and organization.Without necessarily subscribing to all the concepts of the Gestalt school, some psychologists have developed a cognitive theory of learning.They lay emphasis on meaningful learning, meaning being understood not as a behavioral response, but as a conscious experience which emerges when potentially meaningful signs, symbols or concepts are related to and incorporated within a given individual‟s cognitive structure.As far as the empirical studies of learning are concerned, psychology has also investigated learning problems from the applied side in practical learning situations.Critics have deplored the wide gap between the classroom learning theory and the theoretical and laboratory study of learning.Categories of the psychology of learning, commonly applied to formal educational activities, refer to(a)characteristics of the learners and individual differences among learners,(b)different kinds of learning,(c)the learning process and(d)outcomes of learning.(a)Among learner characteristics, factors that are frequently presented in the literature include:(1)the influence of age and maturity on mental development and learning;(2)the influence of heredity and environment on abilities and achievement;(3)specific aptitudes for particular learning tasks, for example, musical aptitude, language learning aptitude, etc.(4)the influence of home and community on motivations and attitudes.(b)What is being learnt has been frequently expressed as three psychological categories.They are conceptual and verbal learning, skill learning and affective and social learning.(c)As for the process of learning, a number of distinctions have been introduced.One is on the time-scale of learning: early learning in contrast with the later learning;learning processes may further differ in the degree of awareness or volitional control on the part of the learner: the conscious learning and the latent learning， the distinction introduced by Krashen between language learning and language acquisition refers to this identification.The contrast between mechanical learning and cognitive learning refers to the degree of conceptual understanding of the learning task by learners.(d)Lastly, the needs of assessing the outcome of learning have led to the development of tests of achievement and proficiency.Techniques of measurement and evaluation, which psychometrics has contributed to educational psychology, have an obvious relevance for the assessment of language learning.Learning and acquisition The American applied linguist Krashen uses the term “acquisition‟ to describe second language learning which is analogous to the way in which a child acquires his first language, that is naturally, without focus on linguistic form, and learning as conscious language development particularly in formal school-like settings.A disadvantage of Krashen‟s terminology is that it runs counter to the terms used in psychology which, as we have noted, comprise Krashen‟s acquisition and learning as different ways of learning.Language teaching It can be defined as the activities which are intended to bring about language learning.All that need to be pointed out is that language teaching is more widely interpreted than instructing a language class.Formal instruction or methods of training are included, but so is individualized instruction, self-study, computer-assisted instruction, and the use of media, such as radio or television.Chapter two: theory and practice

Definition of theory The word theory is used in three fairly distinct but related senses.When we speak of theory of art, or educational theory, the term theory is used in the first and widest sense(T1).It refers to the systematic study of the thought related to a topic or activity, for example, art, music, or education.Second, under T1, it is possible to subsume different schools of thought or theories(T2), each with their own assumptions, postulates, principles, models and concepts.What we often loosely referred to as language teaching method.Lastly, in the natural and human sciences the concept of theory is employed in a more rigorous third sense(T3)as “ a hypothesis or set of hypotheses that have been verified by observation or experiment‟‟.The theory of evolution is a case in point.Criteria for a good theory We can identify the following criteria as relevant to theory development in language teaching(1)usefulness and applicability

Since a theory of second language teaching is primarily a theory of practical activities.It should be useful, effective or applicable.It proves its usefulness by making sense of planning, decision making, and practice.It should help decision making both on the broader policy level and at the level of classroom activity.The crucial test of language teaching theory is its effect.Interlanguage

An interlanguage is an emerging linguistic system that has been developed by a learner of a second language(or L2)who has not become fully proficient yet but is only approximating the target language: preserving some features of their first language(or L1)in speaking or writing the target language and creating innovations.An interlanguage is idiosyncratically(特殊物质的, 特殊的, 异质的)based on the learners' experiences with the L2.It can ossify in any of its developmental stages.The learner creates an interlanguage using different learning strategies such as language transfer, overgeneralisation and simplification.Interlanguage is based on the theory that there is a “psychological structure latent in the brain” which is activated when one attempts to learn a second language.Larry Selinker proposed the theory of interlanguage in 1972, noting that in a given situation the utterances produced by the learner are different from those native speakers would produce had they attempted to convey the same meaning.This comparison reveals a separate linguistic system.This system can be observed when studying the utterances of the learners who attempt to produce a target language norm.To study the psychological processes involved one should compare the interlanguage of the learner with two things: Utterances in the native language to convey the same message made by the learner

Utterances in the target language to convey the same message made by the native speaker of that language.Interlanguage yields new linguistic variety.Interlanguage is the basis for diversification of linguistic forms through an outside linguistic influence.Dialects formed by interlanguage are the product of a need to communicate between speakers with varying linguistic ability, and with increased interaction with a more standard dialect, are often marginalized or eliminated in favor of a standard dialect.In this way, interlanguage may be thought of as a temporary tool in language or dialect acquisition.Stephen Krashen & SLA

Stephen Krashen is professor emeritus at the University of Southern California, and is a linguist, educational researcher, and activist.Krashen has contributed to the fields of second language acquisition(SLA), bilingual education, and reading.He is credited with introducing various influential concepts and terms in the study of second language acquisition, including the distinction between acquisition and learning, the Input Hypothesis, Monitor Theory, the Affective Filter, and the Natural Order Hypothesis.The term “language acquisition” became commonly used after Stephen Krashen contrasted it with formal and non-constructive “learning.” However, “second language acquisition” or “SLA” has become established as the preferred term for this academic discipline.Though SLA is often viewed as part of applied linguistics, it is typically concerned with the language system and learning processes themselves, whereas applied linguistics may focus more on the experiences of the learner, particularly in the classroom.Additionally, SLA has mostly examined naturalistic acquisition, where learners acquire a language with little formal training or teaching.The monitor theory 监控理论

It was put forward by Krashen in the late 1970s.The theory consists of the following five hypotheses:

①The acquisition-learning hypothesis The theory claims that adult learners of a second language have two ways of developing their competence — acquisition and learning.The basic distinction between language acquisition and language learning is whether the learner pays a conscious attention to the rules of the target language.Acquisition refers to the subconscious process in which learners develop their language proficiency.Learning refers to the conscious process in which learners acquire the knowledge of rules of the target language.②The monitor hypothesis Different functions— According to Krashen, acquisition is responsible for the fluency of the utterances produced by speakers while learning is responsible for the accuracy of the speeches or passages.Three conditions — In order to perform this monitor function, language learners have to satisfy at least three conditions: sufficient time to monitor his production, to have his focus on form, and to have clear knowledge of the rules of the target language.③The natural order hypothesis Same order — The hypothesis claims that foreign language learners acquire the rules of the target language in the same order no matter where, when and how they are learning the language.Speed — In Krashen‟s point of view, language teaching cannot change the natural order of language acquisition.It can only facilitate the speed of acquisition.④The input hypothesis Language input and language acquisition— According to Krashen, the only way for people to acquire a language is by understanding messages or receiving comprehensive input.They move from their current level to the next level by understanding input.They move from i, their current level, to i+1, the next level along the natural order, by understanding input containing i+1.That is to say, language is acquired by people‟s comprehension of input that is slightly beyond their current level.⑤The affective filter hypothesis Purpose — It attempts to explain the variation in speed of language acquisition among individuals of the same group.The three affective factors which determines the speed of success — motivation, self-confidence, and anxiety.Influence of the three factors — learners with high motivation, self-confidence, and low anxiety will do much better than those that are unmotivated, lacking in self-confidence and concerned too much with failure.That is to say, learners with a low affective filter will get more input than learners with a high affective filter.Error analysis Error analysis in SLA was established in the 1960s by Stephen Pit Corder and colleagues(Corder, 1967).Error analysis was an alternative to contrastive analysis, an approach influenced by behaviorism through which applied linguists sought to use the formal distinctions between the learners' first and second languages to predict errors.Error analysis showed that contrastive analysis was unable to predict a great majority of errors, although its more valuable aspects have been incorporated into the study of language transfer.A key finding of error analysis has been that many learner errors are produced by learners making faulty inferences about the rules of the new language.Error analysts distinguish between errors, which are systematic, and mistakes, which are not.They often seek to develop a typology of errors.Error can be classified according to basic type: omissive, additive, substitutive or related to word order.They can be classified by how apparent they are: overt errors such as “I angry” are obvious even out of context, whereas covert errors are evident only in context.Closely related to this is the classification according to domain, the breadth of context which the analyst must examine, and extent, the breadth of the utterance which must be changed in order to fix the error.Errors may also be classified according to the level of language: phonological errors, vocabulary or lexical errors, syntactic errors, and so on.They may be assessed according to the degree to which they interfere with communication: global errors make an utterance difficult to understand, while local errors do not.In the above example, “I angry” would be a local error, since the meaning is apparent.From the beginning, error analysis was beset with methodological problems.In particular, the above typologies are problematic: from linguistic data alone, it is often impossible to reliably determine what kind of error a learner is making.Also, error analysis can deal effectively only with learner production(speaking and writing)and not with learner reception(listening and reading).Furthermore, it cannot account for learner use of communicative strategies such as avoidance, in which learners simply do not use a form with which they are uncomfortable.For these reasons, although error analysis is still used to investigate specific questions in SLA, the quest for an overarching theory of learner errors has largely been abandoned.In the mid-1970s, Corder and others moved on to a more wide-ranging approach to learner language, known as interlanguage.Error analysis is closely related to the study of error treatment in language teaching.Today, the study of errors is particularly relevant for focus on form teaching methodology.Pedagogical grammar Pedagogical grammar serves as an intermediary or link between linguistics and pedagogy.Drawing on work in several fields such as linguistics, psychology and second language acquisition theory, pedagogical grammar is of a hybrid nature, which usually denotes grammatical analysis and instruction designed for the needs of second language students.In its expanded view it involves decision making processes on behalf of the teacher which requires careful and time-consuming interdisciplinary work.This process is influenced by the teachers‟ cognition, beliefs, assumptions, and attitudes about the teaching of grammar.Noblitt bases his conception of a pedagogical grammar on a fivefold analysis: a pedagogical grammar requires descriptive and contrastive data and concepts, an ordering of the information in terms of skills(listening, speaking, reading, and writing)and in terms of levels of achievement(elementary, intermediate, and advanced), and evaluation procedures, bearing in mind objectives and educational settings for which the pedagogical grammar in intended.What is the relationship between the linguistics and language teaching? The relationship between linguistics and language teaching has moved through different phases.In spite of the early interest in phonetics around the turn of the 20th century, the language teaching remained unaffected until the interwar period.Equally, the linguists ignored the application of linguistics in the pedagogical activities.From about the 1940s to 1960s, there is a confident application of linguistics in the teaching practice.Linguists in the forties in America were fully aware of their role in language teaching.Bloomfield suggested a professional and almost technical approach in teaching the language.The set of the approach was(1)a structural analysis of the language, forming the basis for graded material,(2)presentation of the analysis by a trained linguist,(3)several hours of drill per day with the help of a native speaker and in small classes, and(4)emphasis on speaking as the first objective.The structuralism forms the linguistic basis of the audiolingual method which was prevailing in the 40s and 50s.The new perspective of language offered by transformational generative grammar led to a violent rejection of structuralism and everything it stood for.It shook the foundations of structuralism in linguistics and by implication of audiolingualism in language teaching.Transformational generative grammar recognizes the language as a rule-governed system, therefore, learning a language involves internalizing the rules.Structural linguistics only treats a language as a collection of habits.In language teaching, therefore, it sanctions imitation, memorization, mechanical drills, ect.Chomsky accused the linguists of sharing the myth that linguistic behavior is habitual and that a fixed of stock of patterns ia acquired through practice and used as a basis for analogy.The new version of Chomsky‟s theory leads to the disorienting impact of linguistics to language teaching from 1965 to 1970.The sudden ideological changes reopened the entire question of the contribution of linguistics to language teaching.A shift was taken place from applying linguistics directly to treating linguistics as a resource to be drawn on for the benefit of pedagogy with complete independence of mind.The conviction that linguistic studies cannot be applied to language pedagogy without modification led to the formulation of the concept of pedagogical grammar as an intermediary or link between linguistics and pedagogy.Now that we have traced the development of the relations between linguistics and language teaching we will attempt to draw some lessons for the development of our own view of language within a language teaching theory.We will investigate the relationship under the distinction of application and implication and recognize a twofold connection:(1)A language teaching theory incorporates a theory of language,(2)The description of particular language is brought to language teaching.With regard to the theory of language in teaching, a language teaching theory expresses answers to questions about the nature of language.We should identify view of language implicit in language teaching theories from the following 5 aspects: a.analytical and non-analytical approaches to language A basic question to ask is to what extent the language teaching theory treats the language analytically and therefore adopts a linguistics point of view, or whether it presents the language non-analytically.When we treat language non-analytically, the teaching approaches avoids deliberate study of the language, but the rationale underlying this teaching approach still implies a view of nature of language.As we treat language as an object to be studied, practiced, or manipulated in any way, we must conceptualize it or at least to a certain extent.b.the complexity of language Linguistic theory has not presented us with a simple and unified picture of language.The second question to ask is : what aspects of language does our language teaching theory include or exclude, and among those that are included, which of these are espically emphasized? We can ask ourselves to what extent the language teaching theory gives priority to phonology, grammar, vocabulary or discourses aspects.Going on from these, we can further ask how it handles these different components of language.Does it deal with them entirely as language forms or structures? Or does it teach them as meanings? And does it place language features into a social context and thus relate the language to the real world? c.the humpty-dumpty effect it is one thing to isolate and analyse different aspects of language, it is quite another to bring the different aspects of the language together.The categories which linguists have devised in order to study an aspect of language more effectively can become troublesome barriers.To overcome these, linguistics has not only concerned itself with analysis but has also aimed to make a synthesis between the different parts of language.In the same way, the language teacher wishes to teach language as a whole.d.rule versus creativity a language teaching theory, like a linguistic theory, should take into account the regularities(rules, patterns, structures, habits)as well as the possibility of making use of the regularities in varied, novel, and sometimes unique ways as demanded by a given situation.e.a theory of language---a necessary artifact the final question to ask is of a more general nature: what are the main characteristics of the view of language in this language teaching theory? Since the language is comprehensive by nature, both the linguistics and teaching should concern the complexity of language and convey it.However, it is impossible to justice to the whole of language, a language teaching theory inevitably demand choices based on an interpretation of language.That is to say, all language teaching theories are artifacts which highlight some aspects of language at the expense of the others.When we come to the description of languages, there is often a discrepancy between descriptive information on a second language and the needs of pedagogy.Therefore an intermediate device, the pedagogical grammar , has been suggested and the following conceptual steps which link theoretical and descriptive linguistics with the development of a language curriculum can be indicated.The descriptive relationship can be divided into six steps.Theoretical linguistics at step I is concerned with the development of general categories and research strategies for studies of particular language.Research at step II can be visualized as detailed studies of linguistic features of particular languages.These studies form the descriptions of given language at step III.The descriptions provide the basis for a pedagogical grammar at step IV.The pedagogical grammar forms the linguistic resource for curriculum development which takes place at step V, with the teaching of language aspect at step VI.Maintaining the dual relationship between linguistics and language teaching is important for language pedagogy, but it is a complex undertaking.The continuing developments in linguistic theory and in language pedagogy as well as the constant changes in the language themselves, demand the permanent study of language and languages and a review of the relations between linguistic theory and language pedagogy.What is communicative competence

Communicative competence is a linguistic term which refers to a intuitive mastery that the native speaker possesses to use and interpret language appropriately in the process of interaction and in relation to social context.This concept was coined by Hymes in 1972 to constitute a challenge to Chomsky‟s linguistic competence which is confined to internalized rules of syntax and abstracts from social rules of language use.Communicative competence no doubt implies linguistic competence but its main focus is the intuitive grasp of social and cultural rules and meanings that are carried by any utterance.The complexity of the entire rule system makes it impossible for anyone except the native speakers to acquire communicative competence.This observation leads to the conclusion that communicative competence of second language learners must be conceived somewhat differently from that of a native speaker.The definition of the second language learners‟ communicative competence given by Canale and Swain(1980)has long been viewed as the standard one in applied linguistics.They prescribe this term into four components:

(1)Grammatical competence: this includes the knowledge of the lexicon, syntax and semantics, or words and rules in general.(2)Sociolinguistic competence: it refers to the appropriateness of communication depending on the context including the participants and the rules of interaction.(3)Discourse competence

This is concerned with the cohesion and coherence of utterances in a discourse(4)Strategic competence

It means appropriate use of communication strategies especially when communication fails.Language planning

Language planning consists of organized efforts to find solutions to language problems in a society.It is therefore an application of sociolinguistic concept and information to policy decisions involving language.Language planning process is likely to go through a necessary series of stages1)fact-finding The planning must be based on a survey and review of the language situation for which the plan is developed.(2)the selection stage At this stage the planner will attempt to identify language goals and choices open to the society or policy makers and suggest strategies for reaching these goals.(3)the development stage.At this stage, the traditionally recognized forms of language planning are employed : cultivation and development of the language or languages that have been selected in previous stage.(4)the implementation phase Defining the steps to take---information, assimilation, instruction---constitute the fourth phase of the planning process.(5)the final phase is one of feedback and evaluation.Linguists recognize eleven language planning goals such as language purification, language revival, language reform, language standardization, language spread ect.Language planning has been divided into three types: status planning, corpus planning and acquisition planning.Status planning is the allocation or reallocation of a language or variety to functional domains within a society, thus affecting the status, or standing, of a language, Corpus planning refers to the prescriptive intervention in the forms of a language, Acquisition planning is a type of language planning in which a national, state or local government system aims to influence aspects of language, such as language status, distribution and literacy through education.Acquisition planning can also be used by non-governmental organizations, but it is more commonly associated with government planning.Proficiency Proficiency can be looked at as a goal and thus be defined in terms of objectives or standards.These can then serve as criteria by which to assess proficiency as an empirical fact, which is the actual performance of given individual learners or groups of learners.The native-like proficiency is a necessary point of reference for the second language proficiency concept used in language teaching theory.Proficiency in the first or second language can be summarized as: 1.The intuitive mastery of the forms of the language.It means the language user knows the rules governing his native language and he can apply them without paying attention to them.This mastery of the forms of a language which is intuitive and yet can be made conscious under certain circumstance is characteristic of first language proficiency, which the second language learners in the early stages of a second language lack entirely and acquire only gradually as they progress.2.The intuitive mastery of the linguistic, cognitive, affective and sociocultural meaning, expressed by the language forms.3.The capacity to use the language with maximum attention to communication and minimum attention to form, and 4.The creativity of language use.There are two sets of approaches that have been made to conceptualize and describe second language proficiency.One set of options relates to the levels of proficiency the different degree of actual or required mastery of the second language, or the progression from a basic to a near-native level.This is what rating scales postulate, test measure, and interlanguage studies empirically investigate.The second set of options lies in the components of proficiency which can be expressed in relatively general or abstract terms in increasingly concrete ways.Oller has opted for a single-concept expression of proficiency: expectancy grammar.Most error analysis and interlanguage studies appear to assume a single underlying linguistic competence.Cummins(1979)has recognized a twofold division between the linguistic competence and communicative competence.Canale and Swain‟s division of proficiency into linguistic, sociolinguistic, and strategic competence is threefold.A fourfold interpretation is also implicit in the traditional division of proficiency into listening, speaking, reading, and writing.The Council of Europe inventories represent a multiple interpretation of proficiency combing roles, settings, topics, functions, and notions, while Carroll‟s analysis of proficiency relates four behavioural to three or more linguistic categories.Given the complexity of language it would seem more reasonable to assume that the proficiency in a language is multifaceted.In future studies on proficiency the four approaches could no doubt complement each other and serve jointly to develop progressive approximations of a more definitive formulation of proficiency of second language learners.Model of second language learning(the factors involving the second language learning)We can consider a diagram consisting of five factors as an uncontroversial synthesis representing the consensus among the different investigators.In this diagram five sets of variables have been distinguished.Three of these----social context, learner characteristics and learning conditions---are represented as determiners of the learning process and, through it , of the learning outcome.Social context can be seen to be of great importance in language learning.First, language must be treated in social context..In addition, for language teaching, it is important to relate language to society, because languages are taught and learnt to establish contact and communication across language boundaries.The factors in social context which respectively exert influence on language learning are: linguistic factors, social and cultural factors, the historical setting and the national or international political situation, geographical aspects, economic and technological development, and educational framework.If we want to understand the influence of learner characteristics on learning and learning outcome, we‟d better get a thorough understanding of the learner variables: age, sex, cognition, affection and personality.Since the definitive answers to the major questions of learner psychology still elude us, in formulating a language teaching theory our conceptualizations of learner factors must remain somewhat tentative.With these caution in mind we will now look at a few crucial learner factors—the age question, language learning aptitude and other cognitive characteristics and affective and personality factors.As for the age issue, a series of studies offer the following conclusions: 1.language learning may occur at different maturity levels from the early years into adult life, no age or stage stands out as optimal or critical for aspects of second language learning.2.In some respects, all age levels face second language learning in similar ways.3.The young children respond more readily and intuitively to language acquisition in social and communicative situations, while the older learners can learn languages more readily by means of cognitive and academic approach.4.Each stage of development may have certain advantages and certain disadvantages for second language learning.The language aptitude batteries include the ability to cope with a sound system and its written representation, the ability to absorb its grammatical rule system and verbal memory skills.More recent research has attempted, although quite tentatively, to identify basic cognitive characteristic underlying learning strategies such as field dependence/ independence, transfer/ inference, broad and narrow categorizing.As for the affection and personality of the learners, Gardner distinguishes four main categories: group specific attitudes, course related characteristics, motivational indices, and generalized attitude.The first component consists of attitudes towards the community and people who speak the target language.The second component comprises attitudes towards the learning situation itself.The third category refers to the learner‟s motives for learning the language.The fourth group of variables includes a general interest in foreign languages and certain personality characteristics: ethnocentrism, authoritarianism, anomie, Machiavelliannism and the need for achievement.The learning conditions consist of two settings: language learning either inside the target language environment or away from it.The distinction between learning from exposure to the second language in the target language environment and learning from a teacher is not rigid.The two conditions can be visualized as a continuum.The advance from zero competence to whatever level the learner wishes to attain in the second language goes through several stages.At the beginning of the learning process, the second language learner has affective, cognitive and social consequences.Affectively, the second language learner has to come to terms with the frustrations of non-communication.The lack of language contact and of means of expression and the absence of a safe reference system give the learner an initial intellectual and emotional shock.Cognitively, the learner at the start faces disorientation with regard to all linguistic, semantic, and sociolinguistic aspects of the second language.The task for the learner is to overcome the disorientation and constraints to build up, cognitively and affectively, a new reference system and a system of meaning to be able to respond to the communicative situations appropriately and spontaneously and to think in the second language.This process has been described as internalization.In social terms, the second language learner is dependent on the model given to him by the teacher, the native informant or the second language milieu.This linguistic and sociolinguistic dependence is necessary early phase, a satellization phase of language acquisition.In the progressive pattern of language learning, the intermediate competence levels which have been referred to as transitional competence or interlanguage ideally become progressive approximations to the second language norm set by the native speaker or teacher.Once the stage, experienced subjectively as a stage of greater freedom of communication, has been reached, the learner enters the desatellization phase.Besides the question about the nature and stages of language development, the language learning process presents three main problems which we labeled as the(1)L1-L2 connection,(2)the explicit-implicit option and(3)the code-communication dilemma.The L1-L2 connection means the disparity between the inevitable dominance in the mind of the learner of the first language and the inadequacy of the learner‟s knowledge of the new language.The second is the choice between deliberate, conscious, or relatively cognitive ways of learning a second language and more subconscious, automatic, or more intuitive ways of learning it.The third issue is the learner‟s problem of how to cope with the dilemma that is presented by the fact that it is hard, if not impossible, for an individual to pay attention to linguistic forms, the language as a code, and simultaneously to communicate in that code.We have argued that the three issues are dealt with by all the language learners and teachers.In doing so the learning process is best understand as threefold involving the learner intellectually/cognitively, socially and affectively.From all these considerations and from the research, Stern and his colleagues derive four basic sets of strategies which they hypothesize good learners are likely to employ.They are an active planning strategy, an academic(explicit)learning strategy, a social learning strategy, and an affective strategy.For intelligent and intellectual adults, active planning strategy and academic learning strategy may be more important, while for young children, an emphasis on social learning strategy and affective strategy can be expected.The aim of further learning research remains to improve our understanding of second language learning in different social contexts, under different language learning conditions, at different age and maturity levels, and at different levels of proficiency.Acculturation theory

It was put forward by J.Schumann and R.Aderson in 1970s.The meaning of the theory: By acculturation they mean that individuals of one culture have to go through the process of modification in attitudes, knowledge, and behaviour in order to function well in another culture.It involves social and psychological adaptations.The relation between acculturation and second language acquisition: The degree of acculturation will control the degree of second language acquisition.Factors which determine the degree of acculturation success: The social and psychological distance plays a decisive role in acculturation success.Negative psychological factors such as high ego boundaries, language shock, culture shock, low motivation that will increase the psychological distance: language shock, culture shock, low motivation and high boundaries.What is your understanding of the curriculum? The term of curriculum is commonly used in two related senses.It refers, first, to the substance of a programme of studies of an educational institution or system, such as the school curriculum, the university curriculum.In a more restricted sense it refers to the course of study or content in a particular subject, such as the mathematics curriculum.In recent years, however, the term curriculum has come to refer not only to the subject matter or content, but also to the entire instructional process including materials, equipment, examinations and training of teachers, in short, all pedagogical measures related to schooling or to the substance of a course of studies.In other words, curriculum is concerned with “what can and should be taught to whom, when, and how.”

Curriculum theory is concerned with(1)the underlying ideological and philosophical assumptions of curriculum(curriculum philosophy);(2)the conceptualization of three main components of curriculum: purposes and content, instruction, and evaluation, and(3)curriculum processes: systematic curriculum development, the implementation of curriculum in educational institution and curriculum evaluation.(1)Curriculum philosophies.Discussions distinguished five major orientations: the school curriculum should develop cognitive processes.The principal function of the school is not to transmit a predetermined content but to train children in skills of enquiry.So the main object of language teaching is not to acquire a second language to perfection but to provide how to learn language.A second orientation is described as self-actualization.According to this point of view, the curriculum should be meaningful at the given stage of the child‟s growth rather than provide him with experience which are useful to him only when he is adult.A third orientation, social reconstruction lays emphasis on the needs of the society which are to be met by education and curriculum.In this sense, bilingualism is very important as a binding force in the society across the linguistic divisions.The fourth orientation is academic rationalism, emphasizes the heritage of classical scholarship and a common literacy as the main core and content of the curriculum.The fifth orientation is described as curriculum as technology.In this approach values are not questioned or consciously established.These five orientations are not mutually exclusive.(2)Essential components of curriculum.The basic concepts of curriculum are broadly agreed upon.Three major distinctions are commonly made.a.Purposes and content.Modern curriculum theory has laid a great deal of emphasis on the definition of goals and the clarification of content.American educationist Bloom has established an ordered classification of educational objectives.They were expressed in three major psychological categories: cognition, affect, and psychomotor skills.The cognitive domain involves knowledge and the development of intellectual skills.The affective domain includes the manner in which we deal with things emotionally, such as feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes.The psychomotor domain includes physical movement, coordination, and use of the motor-skill areas.b.Instruction This concept centres around the process of teaching and learning to reach these objectives.Consequently, the how of education----teaching methods, the time allocation, the selection and arrangement of content, the modes of presentation, the classroom, the media used, and so on----can also be considered part of curriculum c.Evaluation

The third aspect of curriculum, evaluation, refers to the assessment of whether teaching achieves its object.(3)Curriculum processes.The development of a new curriculum, its implementation in a school system and its periodic evaluation have been recognized as activities that must be carefully planned.a.Curriculum development.What steps should be taken to develop new curricula and carry them into effect? The answers are concerned with efficiency of curriculum construction and its implementation in a school system.b.Implementation and the management of curriculum change.Even if the curriculum has been developed and assuming that the right kind of reaching materials have been created, there is still a problem of implementing the new curriculum.It involves the willing participation of the teachers which has been regarded as the essential aspect of introducing a new curriculum.c.Curriculum evaluation.The evaluation of curriculum is a quality control of the curriculum in answer to two main questions: first, has the curriculum selected goals and a content which are sound and educationally justifiable? Second, is the instruction of a kind that will lead to success among the students to whom the curriculum is directed? With review of the three components in mind, the curriculum philosophy, the basic concept relating to curriculum, and curriculum development, we can get a thorough understanding of the term of curriculum.Can you try to explain the model of teaching? A teaching model proposed by Stern and his colleagues offer us the interrelated factors in the teaching, they are social context, learner characteristics, teacher characteristics, learning process, learning conditions and learning product.The social context influences the learner as well as the teachers.It also directly influences the educational treatment.Considering the teaching model from the educational perspective, the whole teaching should be fulfilled in curriculum terms.Teaching, interpreted in terms of curriculum, is represented as planned action with certain ends in view and means to reach them.A means-end view of teaching is unavoidable in language pedagogy.1.Ends

Let get an explanation of ends at first.When we talk about ends, both objectives and content should be identified in the analysis of teaching.Inspired by the Bloom taxonomy, we can attempt to identify four categories of objectives.It recognizes proficiency in the second language as a first and major objective.The second one is knowledge which comprises an explicit knowledge about the second language and knowledge about the corresponding culture.The third objective expresses the belief that the cultivation of affective objectives forms an integral part of the scheme.This objective includes values and attitudes related to the language and culture.A final behavioral category, which is described as transfer, acknowledge as an objective the possibility of learning a particular language with the purpose of generalizing beyond the language in question.The content categories are broadly conceived as language, culture, communication, and general language education.Language implied the particular L2, culture means the target culture.Communication refers to activities which engage the learner as a participant in communication with speakers of the second language.General knowledge education is the content beyond the particular second language and target culture which will enable the learner to go beyond the language given.2.Means

Making a conceptual distinction between ends and means is particularly important in language teaching because the confusion between them has been another constant source of trouble in the debate on teaching methods.Instruction brings us to the most intense controversy in the method debate.Therefore, we would like to select the concept of teaching strategies.It is not possible to propose a definitive and exhaustive list of teaching strategies, but we can begin by identifying those who can be derived from the three crucial issues which have been labeled as L1-L2 connection, the code-communication dilemma, and the explicit-implicit option.(a)The intralingual-crosslingual(intracultural-crosscultural)dimensions concern the use or non-use of the L1 in L2 learning.(b)The objective-subjective(analytical-experiential)dimension results from the code-communitcation dilemma.It refers to treat the target language as codes and as such as objects of study or as something to experience subjectively.(c)The explicit-implicit dimension relates to techniques which encourage the learner either to adopt a cognitive approach or to employ the techniques which encourage more intuitive absorption and automatically.3.Stages and sequences.Since a language can not be mastered in a single stride a pedagogical progression and division of stages are inevitable.Such progression would be based on several content criteria such as what is known about language learning as a developmental process, the definition of mastery levels, learning objectives, and our knowledge about learners and learning, etc.4.Learning outcome.Learning outcome means the proficiency obtained by the learners.It can be summarized as:(1)The intuitive mastery of the forms of the language.It means the language user knows the rules governing his native language and he can apply them without paying attention to them.This mastery of the forms of a language which is intuitive and yet can be made conscious under certain circumstance is characteristic of first language proficiency, which the second language learners in the early stages of a second language lack entirely and acquire only gradually as they progress.(2)The intuitive mastery of the linguistic, cognitive, affective and sociocultural meaning, expressed by the language forms.(3)The capacity to use the language with maximum attention to communication and minimum attention to form, and(4)The creativity of language use.Besides proficiency, there are cognitive and affective learning outcomes to bear in mind.We should try to distinguish the immediate outcome from the long-term outcome.The immediate outcomes are important for feedback to further teaching and learning.The long-term outcome can be considered from the point of view of the individual learner, the teacher, and the society.For the individual learner, the outcome should be a permanent acquisition of a second language including the permanent attitude towards L2 learning.For the individual teacher, the evaluation of his own teaching provides feedback for further teaching.For the society, the language learning outcome may influence and modify the sociocultural and sociolinguistic context which forms the background against which the processes of teaching and learning are initiated.The teaching-learning model which has been outlined is intended to enable us to view different aspects of language teaching in relation to one another and in this way to obtain a more balances view of the teaching component for the threefold purpose of theory development, practical decision making, and for research.

第二篇：桥梁工程基本概念总结

1桥梁工程主要内容

1）构造原理

2）计算原理

3）计算方法

4）施工概要

2桥型

1)简支混凝土梁桥

2）悬臂混凝土梁桥

3）连续混凝土梁桥

4）混凝土刚构桥 5）圬工及混凝土拱桥

6）混凝土斜拉桥

7)悬索桥

3桥梁的地位

桥梁是一个国家或地区经济实力、科学技术、生产力发展等综合国力体现；是代表一个地区经济、历史、人文等社会发展的标志性建筑，可以说是社会历史发展的一座不朽的丰碑。

4桥梁的组成，从传递荷载功能划分

（1）桥跨结构（2）支座系统（3）桥墩（4）桥台

（5）墩台基础

5计算跨径

• 跨径

• 净跨径对于梁式桥是设计洪水位上相邻两个桥墩（或墩台）之间的净距，用l0 表示

• 建筑高度是桥上行车路面(或轨顶)高程至桥跨结构最能下缘之间的距离

桥下净空是设计洪水位或计算通航水位至桥跨结构最下缘之间的距离，以H表示

6桥梁附属设施

1）桥面铺装（或称行车道铺装）

2）排水防水系统

3）栏杆（或防撞栏杆）

4）伸缩缝

5）灯光照明

7桥梁的分类，按跨径大小分类

桥梁类型

多孔跨径总长L(m)

单孔跨径L0(m)

特大桥

L≥500

L0≥100

大桥

100≤L﹤500

40≤L0﹤100

中桥

30≤L﹤100

20≤L0﹤40

小桥

8≤L﹤30

5≤L0﹤20

8桥梁的分类，按桥面的位置划分

上承式——视野好、建筑高度大

下承式——建筑高度小、视野差

中承式——兼有两者的特点

9桥梁的分类，按桥梁用途来划分

公路桥、铁路桥、公路铁路两用桥、农桥、人行桥、运水桥、其他专用桥梁

10桥梁的分类，按材料来划分

木桥、钢桥、圬工桥（包括砖、石、混凝土桥）、钢筋混凝土桥、预应力钢筋混凝土桥

11桥梁的分类，按结构体系划分

梁式桥、拱桥、刚架桥、缆索承重桥、组合体系桥

12桥梁的分类，按跨越方式

固定式的桥梁、开启桥、浮桥、漫水桥 13桥梁的分类，按施工方法

整体施工桥梁——上部结构一次浇筑而成 节段施工桥梁——上部结构分节段组拼而成14桥梁设计程序

1)“预可”和“工可”研究阶段

2)初步设计

3)技术设计

4)施工图设计

15桥梁的规划设计

16桥梁设计原则

公路桥梁的设计，根据其使用任务、性质和所在线路的远景发展需要，应符合技术先进、安全可靠、适用耐久、经济合理的要求外，还应考虑造型美观和有利于环保的原则。

17桥梁的体系

由基本构件所组成的各种结构物，在力学上也可以归结为梁式、拱式和悬吊式三种基本体系以及它们之间的各种组合。

18桥梁的美学

一座桥梁应具有优美的外形，应与周围的景观相协调。

19桥梁荷载分类

永久荷载、可变荷载、偶然荷载

20永久荷载

概念：桥梁使用期内，位置、大小、方向不随时间变化或变化很小可以忽略不计的作用。

主要类型：主梁结构自重、桥面铺装及附属设施

土重、土压力、体内外预应力、混凝土收缩、徐变影响、基础变位影响等

21可变荷载

桥梁的使用作用：车辆、人群以及由车辆间接引起的作用。

汽车、挂车、履带车、人群及特种车，对弯桥考虑离心力、冲击力

其他可变包括：汽车制动力、支座摩擦力、温度、风荷载、水压力等

22偶然荷载

地震力（设计烈度7~8度）、船舶撞击力、漂流物撞击力

23桥面布置

行车道：

双向车道布置——交通量不大的桥梁

单向车道布置——交通量大的桥梁

做法：上下行桥梁分离、分隔带

双层桥面布置——充分利用桥梁的承载能力

人行道——城市附近的桥梁

检修道、安全带——郊区或高速公路

24桥面铺装类型，常用方法，与主梁的关系

类型：1）水泥混凝土

2）沥青混凝土

3）沥青表面处治

4）泥结碎石

5）混合型

常用做法：一层混泥土铺装，8~10厘米厚

一层砼+一层沥青，8+5厘米

防水混凝土铺装——抗裂性较好的砼

与主梁的关系：1）桥面铺装必须配筋

2）铺装层对主梁受力有一定帮助作用

25桥面防水层的类型

1）洒布薄层沥青或改性沥青，其上撒布一层砂，经碾压形成沥青涂胶下封层。

2）涂刷聚氨酯胶泥、环氧树脂、阳离子乳化沥青、氯丁胶乳等高分子聚合物涂胶。

3）铺装沥青或改性沥青防水卷材，以及浸渍沥青的无纺土工布等做法。

26桥面排水系统及常用做法

设置数量：

i﹥2，l﹤50时：不设

i﹥2，l＞50时：12~15米设一个

i﹤2，时：6~8米设一个

泄水管过水面积不小于2cm3 /m2 桥面；距离路缘石20~50cm

常用做法：金属排水管、混凝土排水管、横向排水、封闭式

27桥梁伸缩缝使用要求，类型

使用要求：

1）能够适应桥梁温度变化所引起的伸缩

2）桥面平坦，行驶性良好的构造

3）施工安装方便，且与桥梁结构联为整体

4）具有能够安全排水和防水的构造

5）承担各种车辆荷载的作用

6）养护、修理与更换方面

7）经济廉价

类型：

28桥面人行道尺寸，做法

人行道：人多——人行道0.75米（1米）+0.5米的倍数

人少——安全带，0.25~0.5米

高度——0.25~0.4米

做法：现浇——与桥面连成整体

预制——做成配件，现场组合安装

29桥面护栏作用，种类

作用：封闭沿线两侧的作用；具有吸收碰撞能量的作用

种类：刚性护栏、半刚性护栏、柔性护栏

30混凝土梁桥的特点

受力特点——以主梁受弯承担使用荷载

结构不产生水平反力

预应力度——钢筋混凝土、部分预应力、全预应力混凝土梁

受力体系——简支梁、悬臂梁、连续梁、连续刚构

31混凝土梁桥的优缺点

优点：造价低、耐久性好、可塑性强、刚度大、噪音小

缺点：自重大、钢筋混凝土梁带裂缝工作

32混凝土梁桥的主要类型，按截面类型划分

板梁桥、肋板式截面、箱形截面

33混凝土梁桥的主要类型，按体系划分

简支梁桥、悬臂梁桥、连续梁桥、T形刚构桥、连续刚构桥

34整体式简支板桥使用范围，截面形式，施工方法

适用范围：常用在4~8米跨径、不规则桥梁

截面形式：实心板、矮肋板、空心板

施工方法：整体现浇

35装配式简支板桥使用范围，截面形式，施工方法

适用范围：实心板

截面形式：实心板、空心板——单孔、双孔

施工方法：先张法——长线预制 后张法——扁锚

36装配式简支板桥的建造类型，划分类型

37装配式钢筋混凝土简支T梁桥构造布置，主要尺寸，钢筋构造，横向连接

构造布置：

常用跨径——8.0~20米

主梁布置：梁距通常在1.5~2.2米之间

横梁布置：端横梁；中横梁布置在跨中及4分点

主要尺寸：

主梁——高1/11~1/18L，宽15~18cm

横梁——中横梁3/4h，端横梁与主梁同高，宽12~16cm，可挖空

翼板——1/12h，一般为变厚度

钢筋构造：主钢筋、斜筋、箍筋、翼板横向钢筋、横梁钢筋、架立钢筋、分布钢筋、支座下局部加强钢筋

横向连接：钢板连接；现浇接缝

38装配式预应力混凝土简支T梁桥构造布置，主要尺寸，钢筋构造

构造布置：常用跨径——20~50米

主梁布置：梁距通常在1.5~2.2米之间

大跨度尽量增大梁距

主要尺寸：主梁——高1/15~1/25L，宽15~18cm

横梁——中横梁3/4h，端横梁与主梁同高，宽12~16cm，可挖空

翼板——1/12h，一般为变厚度

下马蹄——占截面总面积的10~20%

1）下马蹄总宽度约为肋宽的2~4倍，并注意马蹄部分（特别市斜坡区），管道保护层不宜小于60mm。

2）下翼缘高度加1/2斜坡区，高度约为梁高的0.15~0.20倍，斜坡宜陡于

45°。

梁端——与下马蹄同宽

钢筋构造：主梁受力钢筋为预应力筋、箍筋、锚下局部加强钢筋、翼板横向钢筋、架立

钢筋、分布钢筋、一般不设斜筋。

39混凝土简支梁桥的计算内容

内力计算——桥梁工程、基础工程课解决

截面计算——混凝土结构原理、预应力混凝土结构课程解决

变形计算

40混凝土简支梁桥行车道板的作用

作用：直接承受车轮荷载，把荷载传递给主梁

41混凝土简支梁桥行车道板分类

分类：

1）单向板

长宽比大于2

短边承受荷载大

2）双向板

长宽比小于2

3）悬臂板

4）铰接板

42悬臂梁桥体系特点

1）由于支点负弯矩的卸载作用，跨中正弯矩大大减小

2）由于弯矩图面积的减小，跨越能力增大

3）体系形式：双悬臂、单悬臂、双悬臂加挂孔、T形刚构

4）缺点：行车条件不好

43悬臂梁桥构造特点

（概括不出来）

44连续梁桥的体系特点

1）由于支点负弯矩的卸载作用，跨中正弯矩大大减小，恒载、活载均有卸载作用

2）由于弯矩图面积的减小，跨越能力增大

3）超静定结构，对基础变形及温差荷载较敏感

4）行车条件不好

45连续梁桥常用施工方法 1）

有支架浇筑施工法 2）平衡悬臂施工法 3）逐跨顶推施工法 4）移动模架施工法

46桥的徐变、收缩理论

47混凝土变形过程

48混凝土收缩徐变的影响

混凝土徐变变形是混凝土构件由荷载引起的瞬时弹性变形随时间缓慢增加的那部分变形，目前主要有三种理论解释徐变，即水泥浆与周围介质气压平衡产生的变形、混凝土晶格滑动引起的变形和混凝土粘性流动造成的变形。而当这些变形发生在超静定结构中时，在多余的约束力，从而也就产生了次内力，这就是混凝土徐变和收缩的影响力。

49刚构桥的体系特点

1）恒载、活载负弯矩卸载作用基本与连续梁接近

2）桥墩参加受弯作用，使主梁弯矩进一步减小

3）弯矩图面积小，跨越能力大，在小跨径时梁高较低

4）超静定次数高，对常年温差、基础变形、日照温度均较敏感

50刚构桥的构造特点

截面形式：

单跨刚构桥——矩形截面

斜腿刚构——箱型截面、多肋式

连续刚构——大跨度：变高度箱梁；小跨度：多室扁箱梁

V型墩刚构——箱型截面、多肋式

15,46,47找不到

43概括不出来

第三篇：java基本概念总结

小结

1、对象的初始化

(1)非静态对象的初始化

在创建对象时，对象所在类的所有数据成员会首先进行初始化。

基本类型：int型，初始化为0。

如果为对象：这些对象会按顺序初始化。

※在所有类成员初始化完成之后，才调用本类的构造方法创建对象。

构造方法的作用就是初始化。

(2)静态对象的初始化

程序中主类的静态变量会在main方法执行前初始化。

不仅第一次创建对象时，类中的所有静态变量都初始化，并且第一次访问某类（注意此时

未创建此类对象）的静态对象时，所有的静态变量也要按它们在类中的顺序初始化。

2、继承时，对象的初始化过程

(1)主类的超类由高到低按顺序初始化静态成员，无论静态成员是否为private。

(2)主类静态成员的初始化。

(3)主类的超类由高到低进行默认构造方法的调用。注意，在调用每一个超类的默认构造

方法前，先进行对此超类进行非静态对象的初始化。

(4)主类非静态成员的初始化。

(5)调用主类的构造方法。

3、关于构造方法

(1)类可以没有构造方法，但如果有多个构造方法，就应该要有默认的构造方法，否则在继承此类时，需要在子类中显式调用父类的某一个非默认的构造方法了。

(2)在一个构造方法中，只能调用一次其他的构造方法，并且调用构造方法的语句必须是

第一条语句。

4、有关public、private和protected

(1)无public修饰的类，可以被其他类访问的条件是：a.两个类在同一文件中，b.两个类

在同一文件夹中，c.两个类在同一软件包中。

(2)protected：继承类和同一软件包的类可访问。

(3)如果构造方法为private，那么在其他类中不能创建该类的对象。

5、抽象类

(1)抽象类不能创建对象。

(2)如果一个类中一个方法为抽象方法，则这个类必须为abstract抽象类。

(3)继承抽象类的类在类中必须实现抽象类中的抽象方法。

(4)抽象类中可以有抽象方法，也可有非抽象方法。抽象方法不能为private。

(5)间接继承抽象类的类可以不给出抽象方法的定义。

6、final关键字

(1)一个对象是常量，不代表不能转变对象的成员，仍可以其成员进行操作。

(2)常量在使用前必须赋值，但除了在声明的同时初始化外，就只能在构造方法中初始化。

(3)final修饰的方法不能被重置（在子类中不能出现同名方法）。

(4)如果声明一个类为final，则所有的方法均为final，无论其是否被final修饰，但数据 成员可为final也可不是。

7、接口interface（用implements来实现接口）

(1)接口中的所有数据均为 static和final即静态常量。尽管可以不用这两个关键字修饰，但必须给常量赋初值。

(2)接口中的方法均为public，在实现接口类中，实现方法必须可public关键字。

(3)如果使用public来修饰接口，则接口必须与文件名相同。

8、多重继承

(1)一个类继承了一个类和接口，那么必须将类写在前面，接口写在后面，接口之间用逗

号分隔。

(2)接口之间可多重继承，注意使用关键字extends。

(3)一个类虽只实现了一个接口，但不仅要实现这个接口的所有方法，还要实现这个接口

继承的接口的方法，接口中的所有方法均须在类中实现。

9、接口的嵌入

(1)接口嵌入类中，可以使用private修饰。此时，接口只能在所在的类中实现，其他类不

能访问。

(2)嵌入接口中的接口一定要为public。

10、类的嵌入

(1)类可以嵌入另一个类中，但不能嵌入接口中。

(2)在静态方法或其他方法中，不能直接创建内部类对象，需通过手

段来取得。

手段有两种：

class A {

class B {}

B getB(){

B b = new B();

return b;

}

}

static void m(){

A a = new A();

A.B ab = a.getB();// 或者是 A.B ab = a.new B();

}

(3)一个类继承了另一个类的内部类，因为超类是内部类，而内部类的构造方法不能自动

被调用，这样就需要在子类的构造方法中明确的调用超类的构造方法。

接上例：

class C extends A.B { C(){

new A().super();// 这一句就实现了对内部类构造方法的调用。

}

}

构造方法也可这样写：

C(A a){

a.super();

} // 使用这个构造方法创建对象，要写成C c = new C(a);a是A的对象。

11、异常类

JAVA中除了RunTimeException 类，其他异常均须捕获或抛出。JAVA一直是很多人喜爱的一种编程语言，在这里北大青鸟徐东校区的老师希望各位努力并快乐的学习这门语言。学习JAVA需要多看SUN公司提供我们的资料信息，了解常用类的属性和方法。我发现我们有很多同学在用常用类的时候，经常会把类里面的方法和自定义的方法搞混。记得有一位老师说过“学习要抱有一种钻研的态度”。我对这句话的理解是当我们学习到一个新的知识点的时候，需要不断理解和消化。这可能是一个长期的过程，不能抱有一种急于求成的态度。以下内容是北大青鸟老师整理的一些JAVA基础：

一、SDK和JDK的区别 SDK是软件开发工具包，JDK是SＤK的一种，其实它是JAVA SDK。JDK在早期的版本中也是叫SDK，在1.2版本以后才叫JDK。

二、J2EE、J2SE、J2ME区别

J2EE：JAVA2平台的企业版，主要应用于WEB和大型企业的开发。

J2SE：JAVA2平台的标准版，学习和一般的开发。它包含于J2EE。

J2ME：JAVA2平台的微缩版，主要应用于电子设备（手机）方面，它包含有J2SE的核心部分之外，还有一个专业的类。

三、JVM的运行机制类加载→类校验→类执行

四、JAVA、JAVAC、用法

JAVA：JAVA解释器用于执行JAVA字节码。它所执行的是一个类并不是一个文件，所以后面类的名字区分大小写。

JAVAC：JAVAC解释器用于将JAVA源代码编译字节码。

五、JAVA标识符

1、标识符由数字、字母下划线“_”或“$”符号组成。

2、标识符必须以字母、下划线“_”或“$”符号开头。

3、不能使用JAVA关键字。

4、字母区分大小写

六、数据类型原始数据类型数值类型

l BYTE

l 整型：SHORT、INT、INT l 浮点：FLOAT、DOUBLE 2 BOOLEAN类型引用数据类型数组类接口

七、变量

变量可分为类变量、局部变量、方法变量。

类变量在定义时就有默认值，数值类型的默认为0，CAHR的默认a，BOOLEAN默认FALSE。

方法变量中没有默认值，需要赋值才能使用。

八、类和对象的区别

类是对象的模板，对象是类的特例

类是抽象的，客观上并不存在的对象是具体的，是客观存的九、类的构造方法

构造方法具有和类相同的名字，它是一个没有返回值的方法。有隐式

构造方法和自定义构造方法两种。JVM在没有自定义造构方法时提供一个没有参数也没有方法主体的默认构造方法。但是如果有自定义的构造方法时，JVM不再提供默认的构造方法。如果在类的实例化是需要用默认构造方法时，必须显示的定义。

十、方法的重载

可以对构造方法或者自定义的方法进行重载，对方法的重载必须满足以下三个条件：

1、参数个数不同

2、参数类型不同

3、参数顺序不同

十一、面向对象的特性

1、封装

2、继承

3、多态

十二、继承的特性

继承允许重用现有的类来构造新类的机制。在继承中具有如下特性：

1、默认继承Object

2、单继承，只能有一个父类

3、子类继承父类除private以外的全部成员和方法。

十三、方法的重写

构成方法重写的条件：

1、两个继承关系的类里

2、方法名、返回值、参数必须一致。

十四、静态（变量、方法、块）

静态类型的变量或方法都是属于类的，并不是属某个具体对象的。所以也称类变量和类方法，所有对象共享一份类变量。定义类变量或类方法的关键字是static。静态块是在类第一次 加载时执行。它的作用是初始化类变量成员。

十五、抽象类

抽象类是具体抽象方法的、不可以实例化对象的类。构成抽象类的条件：

a)具有一个以上的抽象方法。

b)继承一个抽象类，但没有实现全部的抽象方法。

c)继承一个接口，没有实现全部的抽象方法。

十六、异常

Error：内部错误，不期望用户捕获的一种错误。

try语句：try句子里面主要是放置要监控的程序句子

catch：以合理的方式捕获和处理异常，主有try语句出错才会执行。

finally：释放资源，不管try里面的语句是否出错都要执行。

throw：手动引发异常

throws：由方法引发的异常

多层捕获：异常子类一定要位于异常父类之前。最后一个catch块要用Exception捕获，以便捕获到所有异常。执行其中一条catch语句之后，其它的catch将被忽略。

《JAVA基础》基本概念总结

1、在JAVA中所有万物皆对象，所有的代码都要写在一个类中，在类中主要包含属性（变量）和方法（函数），其它代码必须写在某一个方法中，方法与方法之间是平行的，不能在方法中定义方法。

2、如果一个类名使用了public修饰符，则包含该类的JAVA文件名必须该类名一样，一个JAVA文件中只能有一个类前面可以用public修饰符。

3、类是客观实体的抽象，包含属性（该类的数据），和对属性进行操作的方法，为了避免用户对类的属性进行误操作，我们一般把类的属性定义为私有的，并提供相应的get与 set方法去引用和修改这些属性。

4、类的属性与方法可以使用static修饰符，用static修饰的属性与方法是该类的所有对象所共享的，它们可以直接通过类名去引用，在静态方法中只能引用该类的静态变量与静态方法，因为非静态的属性与方法在该类没有被实例化之前是不存在的，即没有相应的执行空间，为了使用的方便，我们可以把不依赖于类的属性(即在方法中不对类的属性进行操作)的方法定义为静态的。

5、构造函数是当一个类被实例化时执行的一段代码，它决定了该类被实例化后的状态，其名称与相应的类名一样，并且不写返回值的类型，我们一般在构造函数中对类的属性进行初始化。当不写构造函数时，系统会给我们提供一个不带参数的空构造函数，如果我们写了一个带参的构造函数，系统就不再提供不带参的构造构数了。

6、为了引用一个类中定义的非静态属性与方法，我们需要实例化一个该类的对象，通过该对象去引用相应的方法。（这是我们实例化一个类的最直接的原因）

7、继承可以实现代码的复用，当子类继承了父类之后，子类就拥有了父类中定义的非私有属性与方法。

8、子类对象可以直接赋值给父类变量，但赋值后就不能通过父类对象去引用在子类中定义的方法了。如果子类覆盖了父类中的方法，则

当子类对象赋值给父类后，通过父类去引用该方法时，执行的是子类中该方法的代码。

9、为了强制子类覆盖父类中的某一方法，可以在父类中将该方法定义为抽象的，如果一个类中含有抽象方法，则该类必须被定义为抽象的，抽象类不能被实例化。

10、接口是一种特殊的抽象类，在接口中定义方法全是抽象的，它定义了一种上层规则或协议，使实现该接口的不同类之间可以交互。

11、接口与抽象类可以定义变量，可以作为函数的参数，但传递给它的只能是实现该抽象类或接口中所有抽象方法的类的对象。

12、在JAVA中一个类一次只能继承一个类，但可以实现多个接口，这是接口存在的一个非常重要的原因。

13、在程序中，有些代码是不安全的，即在执行的过程中有可能会产生错误，为了处理这些错误，在JAVA中引入了异常处理机制，异常的处理分为抛出（throws）和处理(try…catch..)，我们一般在写给其它地方用的方法中将有可能产生的异常抛出，而在main方法中，或实际使用时进行处理。

14、异常是一种带有强制性的业务规则，当一个方法将异常抛出后，我们在使用该法时就必须处理该异常，使用try…catch…可以将我们处理正常业务规则的代码与处理错误（即异常）的代码分割开来，使程序的结构更加清晰。写在try语句中的代码都是受保护的。

第四篇：艺术学基本概念总结

艺术学概念（包括一些文学概念）

1.艺术的认识本质：艺术的掌握方式，或者说，认识世界、反映社会生活的方式，是运用形象进行创造性想象活动，认识世界的重点是事物的特征个性和美，以高度概括的具体可感的形式和形象揭示事物的特征本质和普遍性，是在个别之中显示一半，在特殊之中表现普遍。艺术也掌握真理，但它掌握的是具体形象的真理，即艺术美，所以，艺术认识内容，则要求真实性，要求通过艺术形象真实地反映社会生活。

2.艺术形象：是艺术家对社会生活进行审美认识按照美的规律进行审美创造的结果，同时又是观众的审美对象。

3.美的规律：一个事物，只有当它以其现象的真实充分的体现出其本质的真实，以其具体的形式充分的表现出 其内容的必然性，以其形象的个别性充分的显现出其种类的普遍性，而且这现象、这形式、这形象又必须是 非常突出、鲜明、生动，那它就是美的。

4.艺术典型：高度真实和高度概括的艺术形象。它一方面以非常鲜明生动的现象和特殊性充分的集中的表现出社会生活的本质和普遍性，同时它又凝聚着创作主题突出的个性、真挚的情感和独特的审美创造，相比一般的艺术形象，它的真实性更高，概括性更广，思想性更深刻，情感更强烈，感染性更持久，是艺术家对于生活真理的独特发现和对美的独特创造。

5.美感：是客观事物的美作用与人而引起的一种意识活动和情感活动。

6.现实美：即现实中美的事物的美。现实美可分为两大类：自然美和社会美。自然美是指自然中存在的美，即自然事物的美；社会美是指人类社会关系中的美，即社会事物的美。

7.艺术美：指的是艺术作品的美，是由创作主体的审美认识而产生的，“按照美的规律”并为着美的目的而创造的事物的美。

8.再现：是指艺术家在其作品中对他所认识的客观对象或社会生活的具体描绘，在创作手法上偏重于写实，追求感性形式的完美和现象的真实，在创作倾向上偏重于认识客体，摹仿现实。

9.表现：是指艺术家运用艺术表现手段来表达自己的情感体验和审美理想，在创作手法上偏重于理想地、情感地表现对象或抛弃具体物象，追求超感觉的内容和观念，常采取的象征、寓言、夸张、变形以至于抽象等艺术语言，以突破感受的经验习惯，在创作倾向上，则偏重于表现主体意识，直抒胸怀。

10.形式美：是指艺术作品可直接诉诸于感官的外在形式的美，即色彩、线条、形体、声音等按照一定规律如均衡、对称、对比、和谐、整衣、多样统一等排列和组合的形式，并能唤起美感的审美特征。

11.艺术直觉：就是在一定的艺术心理定势的不知不觉的导向和作用下，对客观事物干之后，不经过复杂的治理思考的逻辑过程而直接、迅速地认识和把握事物的思维活动。它的特点是直接面对观察事物和对其认识不经过惯常的逻辑思考的认识瞬间性。它标志着艺术家艺术素养的超常水平。

12.艺术创作活动：是指艺术家运用已经掌握的艺术创作本领（主要表现在已经形成的艺术心理定势和创作才能上），将生活中得来的素材——诸多表象作材料，围绕一定的主题倾向，进行艺术思维（特别是其中的形象思维），从而在头脑中形成比较完整的艺术胎儿——艺术意象，随即运用艺术语言和各种表现方法，把它物化为供人鉴赏的艺术形象，即艺术作品的全部创作活动过程。

13.艺术创作方法：艺术家创作过程中对主体思想感情和客观生活的关系所持的基本态度和所遵循的基本原则。

14.艺术体验：是一种活跃的、丰富的、深刻的内心活动，它伴随着强烈的情感情绪，把艺术家长期对于生活的感受、观察和思考，形成艺术创作的基础和前提，乃至萌发不可遏制的创作欲望。

15.艺术发现：是艺术家在社会生活中积累了一定的生活材料的基础上，依据自己认识生活和评价生活的思想原则和审美趋向，对外在事物进行观察和审视时所得到的一种独特的感知。

16.艺术想象：指艺术家在创作过程中，按照创作主旨的需要，在头脑中对生活中得来的有关的诸多表象进行分解，重组，连接等加工，把实际上并不在一起的事物从观念上把它们组合在一起，使之成为新的理想化了的艺术意象的创造的能力。

17.艺术构思：是艺术家在既定的艺术心理定势和创作目的的指导下，围绕着从生活的暗示中初步形成的主题意向，运用于此有关的生活素材进行艺术思维，进而在头脑中孕育成一个全新的艺术胎儿，即完整的艺术意象。

18.审美意象：是指在对客观世界审美感知与体验的基础上，融会了主观思想、感情、愿望、理想，在艺术家头脑中经过艺术创造形成的意象。

19.意象物化：是指艺术家运用艺术语言，将构思成熟的艺术意象表现为专供审美和鉴赏的艺术形象即艺术作品，其实质是一种审美表现活动。

20.艺术传达：指艺术家借助一定的物质材料和艺术媒介，运用艺术技巧和艺术手法，将自己在艺术构思活动中形成的审美意象物态化，成为可供其它人欣赏的艺术作品和艺术形象。

21.艺术语言：它不仅包括文学语言，也包括了其它艺术门类中起类似文学语言作用的一切艺术想象的材料（如表象这种广为使用的艺术语言符号）和艺术表现手段以及各种艺术媒介。

22.艺术意蕴：是指艺术作品应当在有限中体现出无限，在偶然中蕴藏着必然，在个别中包含着普遍。优秀的艺术作品总是通过生动感人的艺术形象，来传达出深刻的人生哲理或思想内涵。

23.集体无意识：是指一个民族（或国家、集团、人类）在生理进化和文化历史发展过程中所获得的一种心理积淀起来的潜在共同心理。

24.艺术灵感：是艺术家创作构思过程中突然爆发出来的一种豁然贯通、才思如潮的心理现象。往往起着推动创作过程、促成艺术形象完成的作用。虽然它是在艺术家面对大量生活素材和生活感受而感到难以处置的苦思中，因某一机缘的出动，以出乎意外、茅塞顿开的突然性形态表现出来，但它的产生的基础，则是艺术家平日积累的丰富的生活经验和长期艰苦的艺术探索。是艺术家在持续构思过程中，从感性认识上升到理性认识飞跃的心理上的反映。

25.形象思维：是指在艺术构思过程中，以表象作材料，通过艺术想象，对表象予以升华或对表象予以分解、重组、联结等，加工成艺术意象的思维过程。

26.艺术思维：是指在艺术创作中和艺术欣赏过程中的形象思维与抽象思维相统一的系统中，以捕捉艺术意象为目标，因而以形象思维占相对优势的一种思维方式。

27.艺术个性（艺术风格）：是指艺术家在艺术心理定势、艺术意象、艺术想象等内容中体现出来的独特的特点和特性，它是独一无二的艺术体验和独特的艺术技巧高度统一的结果。

28.艺术风格的民族特色：是由本民族的地理环境、社会状况、文化传统、风俗习惯等多种因素决定的，体现出本民族的审美理想和审美需要，但归根结底还是根源于本民族的社会基础与经济生活。

29.艺术风格的时代特色：是指同一时代的艺术创作常常具有某些共同特征，体现出

这个时代占主导地位的审美理想和审美追求。

30.艺术流派：在一定的历史阶段内，由一些思想倾向、艺术主张、创作手法、艺术风格等方面相近或相似的艺术家，自觉不自觉地形成的艺术家群体。

31.艺术思潮：在一定社会思潮和哲学思潮的影响下，在艺术领域中出现的新的艺术思想和创作倾向的一般潮流。

32.艺术的审美教育作用：指人们通过艺术欣赏活动，受到真善美的熏陶和感染，思想上受到启迪，实践上找到榜样，认识上得到提高，在潜移默化的作用下，引起人的思想、感情、理想、追求发生深刻变化，引导人们正确的理解和认识生活，树立起正确的人生观和世界观。

33.艺术的审美认识作用：指人们通过艺术鉴赏活动，能更加深刻地认识自然、认识社会、认识历史、认识人生。

34.艺术的审美娱乐作用：指通过艺术欣赏活动，使人们的审美需要得到满足，获得精神享受和审美愉悦，愉悦心目，畅神益智，通过阅读作品获观赏演出，使身心得到愉快和休息。

35.艺术鉴赏：是指人们对艺术形象感受理解和评判的过程。人们在鉴赏中的思维活动和感情活动一般都从艺术形象的具体感受出发，实现由感性阶段到理性阶段的飞跃。

36.再造想象：根据语言的描述或图形、音响的示意，在头脑中再造出相应的新形象的过程。

37.创造想象：不依据现成的描述而独立地创造出新形象的过程。

38.审美直觉：是指人们在审美活动或艺术鉴赏过程中，对审美对象或艺术形象具有一种不假思索而即刻把握与领悟的能力，使人刹那间暂时忘却一切，聚精会神的观赏它，全部身心沉浸在审美愉悦中。

39.通感：是指在艺术创作与鉴赏活动中，各种感觉互相渗透或挪移，从而大大丰富和扩展了审美感受。

40.定向期待（期待视野）：由读者的文化素养、审美趣味、鉴赏能力等多种因素构成的一种惯性心理力量，“它以不经意的，有时甚至是无意识的习惯方式支配着阅读过程，读者阅读中的定向、选择和童话，完全是在不知不觉、不假思索中进行的。

41.审美体验：是指鉴赏主体在审美直觉的基础上，达到艺术审美活动的高潮阶段，调动再创造的想象力和联想力，激起丰富的情感，设身处地地生活到艺术作品中，获得心灵的审美愉悦，把外在作品中的艺术形象转化为鉴赏者自身的生命活动。

42.审美升华：是指鉴赏主体在审美直觉和审美体验的基础上达到一种精神的自由境界，通过艺术鉴赏的审美再创造活动，在艺术作品和艺术形象重直观自身实现本质力量的对象化。

43.共鸣：是指在艺术鉴赏过程中鉴赏主体在审美直觉和审美体验的基础上进而深深地被艺术作品所感动、所吸引，以至于达到忘我的境界，实践上主体与艺术形象之间契合一致，物我同一，物我两忘。

第五篇：教学设计基本概念

概念：

教学系统设计(Instructional SystemDesign,简称ISD)，也称作教学设计(Instructional Design,简称ISD)是以传播理论、学习理论和教学理论为基础，运用系统论的观点和方法，分析教学中的问题和需求从而找出最佳解决方案的一种理论和方法。

教学设计构成要素：一份完整的教案一般来说主要包括以下几部分：

1、基本情况：主要包括：课程名称、授课内容、教学日期，授课教师姓名、职称、授课对象、授课时数以及教材名称及版本等。

2、教学目标：即，对应每堂课设计明确的教学目标。这种目标制定要符合大纲和学生的实际，要在50分钟里实现的实“在”的具体目标要求，既包括知识、能力的要求，也包括德育、智育的要求。根据这种目标要求确定每堂课的重点、难点。

3、教学过程即教学步骤：这部分内容是教案设计的重点。主要指教学活动的整个流程。包括课堂提问的顺序、内容，课件的演示等细节。为掌握好时间的进度，有时还需要标记每个环节所需要的时间。

教学过程一般从复习检查导入新课开始，这阶段重点要设计如何导入？导入时引导学生参与那些活动？如何给学生创设良好的学习氛围。进入学习新课阶段后，突出问题和情景的设计，如设计怎样的问题或情景让学生对新课内容进行探究，如何探究？如何激发学生的学习兴趣？这部分又是教案设计中教学过程中的难点。第三阶段是对新课的巩固练习，主要靠设计些练习题，让学生动手练，是所学知识得以迁移巩固，最后布置作业。

教学过程也没有固定的模式，关键是在讲与练的处理上，练习不仅是一个教学环节，更是一种教学方法。讲中有练，练中有讲，讲练结合，效果更好些。

4、课后要求：主要设计如何获得必要的反馈信息。即教学评价，为教师反思教学提供重要的依据。代表人物及观念思想

.加涅的教学系统设计理论 加涅（1965，1985）提出了一个关于知识与技能的描述性理论，认为学校学习的知识与技能可以分为五种类型：言语信息、智慧技能、认知策略、动作技能和态度。他又进一步根据其学习的信息加工理论提出了一个关于教学策略的描述性理论。由此观点出发，他根据学习过程中包含有多个内部心理加工环节，从而推断出相应教学过程应由九个教学事件构成：引起注意、告诉学习者目标、刺激对先前学习的回忆、呈现刺激材料、提供学习指导、诱导学习表现（行为）、提供反馈、评价表现、促进记忆和迁移。加涅特别指出，以上九个教学事件的展开是可能性最大、最合乎逻辑的顺序，但也并非机械刻板、一成不变的，也就是说，并非在每一堂课中都要提供全部教学事件。加涅在分析学习的条件时，根据实验研究和经验概括，详尽地区分了不同学习结果对不同教学事件的要求。这就是加涅的规定性教学理论。

2.瑞奇鲁斯的教学系统设计理论框架及其细化理论 瑞奇鲁斯（1983）把教学理论的变量分为教学条件、教学策略和教学结果，并进一步把教学策略变量细分为教学组织策略、教学管理策略和教学传输策略。他还就教学内容的宏观组织问题提出了自己的理论，这就是教学的细化理论（The Elaboration Theory of Instruction，简称ET）。他认为这种理论综合了布鲁纳的螺旋式课程序列、奥苏贝尔的逐渐分化课程序列、加涅的分层序列和斯坎杜拉的最短路径序列，是一种通用的课程序列化的理论。瑞奇鲁斯等人的细化理论（ET）和梅瑞尔（1983）的成分显示理论（Component Display Theory，简称CDT）一起构成了一个完整的教学系统设计理论。3.梅瑞尔的成分显示理论（CDT）梅瑞尔的CDT理论主要是认知领域的教学系统设计理论，对教学策略进行了较详尽的规定。他首先提出了一个有关知识的描述性理论，认为知识由行为水平和内容类型构成了两维分类。梅瑞尔还提出了一个有关教学策略的描述性理论，认为策略有基本呈现形式（PPF）、辅助呈现形式（SPF）和呈现之间的联系（IDR）。基本呈现形式由讲解通则、讲解事例（例子）、探索通则（回忆）、探索事例（实践）构成。辅助呈现形式（SPF）由附加的促进学习的信息构成，如使注意集中的措施、记忆术和反馈；呈现之间的联系（IDR）则是一些序列，包括例子－非例子的配对序列、各种例子的分类序列和例子难度的范围。对于每一个行为－内容类别，CDT都规定了PPF、SPF、IDR之间的组合，这些组合就构成了最有效的教学策略。

4.史密斯和雷根的教学系统设计理论 史密斯和雷根的教学系统设计理论是对90年代以前教学系统设计的一个总结，真正把教学系统设计的重点从教学系统设计过程模式转移到教学系统设计理论和教学模式上来，着眼于具体教学问题，对设计教学策略给予了前所未有的关注。他们首先总结并综合运用了加涅（1965，1985）、布鲁姆（1956）和安德森（1985）有关学习结果的理论。认为学习结果包括：陈述性知识、概念、规则（关系型规则、程序型规则）、问题解决、认知策略、态度和心因动作技能。同时，他们借鉴了瑞奇鲁斯（1983）有关教学策略的分类框架，把教学策略分为教学组织策略、教学管理策略和教学传输策略。然后，对加涅的一般教学策略模型进行了扩展。在此基础上，史密斯和雷根提出了自己的教学事件理论，认为一般教学过程包括以下15个教学事件,并由此对各种不同的学习结果提出了相应的教学策略，这就形成一个与加涅的教学系统设计理论相类似的教学系统设计理论框架

5、何克抗的教学系统设计理论

初步建构了以学为主的教学设计理论体系，并在此基础上提出了“主导一主体”教学设计模式。第一，注重教学系统设计理论的研究。第二，构建了以学为主的教学设计理论和方法体系，使教学系统设计理论和方法能够更加深刻和贴切地反映社会转型与技术进步所提出的实际需求。由于教学系统设计以多学科理论为基础，与技术发展息息相关，因此，相关学科理论和技术的每一发展和变化必然对教学系统设计产生重大影响。近年来，由于信息技术的发展，特别是多媒体、超媒体、人工智能、网络技术、虚拟现实技术所具有的多种特性适合于实现建构主义理论所要求的学习环境，同时由于建构主义主张的以学为中心、在学习过程中充分发挥学生的主动性和首创精神的思想符合世界教育改革的主流及社会发展对新型人才培养的需求，使建构主义愈来愈显示出其强大的生命力。第三，提出了“主导一主体”教学设计理论。“主导一主体”教学系统设计模式是以教为主和以学为主这两种教学系统设计相结合的产物。该模式在深入分析了以教为主的教学系统设计和以学为主的教学设计模式各自的优缺点的基础上，结合我国教育实际和社会对新型人才培养的需求，将两种模式取长补短，提出了在教学中既要充分发挥教师的主导作用，又要创设有利于学生主动探索、主动发现，有利于体现学生的主体地位和创新人才培养的新型学习环境的“双主”教学系统设计思想，初步建构了具有中国特色的教学设计理论体系。第四，注重将教学系统设计理论与实践相结合。

6、戴尔的经验之塔

戴尔将人们获得的经验分为三大类--做的经验,观察的经验和抽象的经验,并将获得这三类经验的方法分为十种.“经验之塔”理论要点 塔的底层的经验，该经验是直接,具体的,学习时最容易理解,也便于记忆.塔的顶层经验最抽象,易获得概念,便于应用.学习方法

教育应从具体经验入手,逐步过渡到抽象,这是较有效的学习方法.学习经验教育不能止于直接经验,不能过于具体化,而必须上升到理论,发展思维,形成概念.替代经验位于塔的中部的是替代经验,它能冲破时空的限制,弥补学生直接经验的不足,且易于培养学生的观察能力.形成科学的抽象在学校中,应用各种教育媒体,以使教育更为具体,从而形成科学的抽象

7.结构主义心理学派 ——皮亚杰 主要观点: a)同化(assimilation),顺应(accommodation),平衡(balance)是他提出的三个基本概念: 同化:个体感受刺激时,将它们纳入到原有认知结构中的过程;顺应:有机体调节自己内部结构以适应特定刺激情境的过程;平衡:个体通过自我调节机制使认知发展从一个平衡状态向另一个较高的平衡状态过度的过程.b)学习是认知结构的组织与再组织,S-AT-R(A代表同化,T代表主体的认知结构),客体的刺激只有被主体同化于认知结构中,才能引起对刺激的行为反应.c)学习从属于发展(只有当儿童达到一定的认知发展阶段时,他们才能通过心理运演来推断)d)学习是一种能动的建构

使用范围

教学系统设计的应用范围

教学系统设计发展的历史告诉我们，教学系统设计最早萌芽于军队和工业培训领域；到60年代才逐渐被引入到学校教育当中。并作为一门独立的知识体系得到迅速的发展；目前，教学系统设计在正规的学校教育、全民的社会教育和继续教育以及工业、农业、金融、军事、服务等各行业、各部门的职业教育和培训领域中都得到了广泛的应用。国外如美国、加拿大和澳大利亚的职业培训，英国的开放大学以及美国、日本等国的中小学教育中均在课程设置、培训计划和教材资源等方面开展了教学系统设计，取得了许多成功的经验。我国在九年义务教育的文字教材与声像教材的编制中，在全国中小学计算机辅助教学软件的开发中，在职业高中、高等院校的部分课程设置和多媒体教材设计中，以及大、中、小学的课堂教学中，教学系统设计的理论和思想也在逐步被接受，教学系统设计的实践正愈来愈为人们所重视。根据《教育技术国际百科全书》的描述，在学校教育中，教学系统设计常常以现存的课程文献或一个待完成的课程为出发点。在职业环境里，工作岗位是教学系统设计的参考和出发点，教学系统设计从具体的工作任务描述和分析开始，使职业岗位培训中的教学目标非常明确和有的放矢。某些教学系统设计者企图把教育和职业培训作同样处理，就容易忽视遍布于教育决策中的政治和道德因素以及很重要但却难以具体化、任务化的基本思维方式和情感、道德教育。因此学校教育中教学系统设计的应用更加复杂，难度也相对更大。研究的基本内容第八页

教学系统设计的学科性质

一、在庞大的教育科学体系中，教学系统设计是一门应用性很强的桥梁性学科

教育、教学理论是发展历史比较悠久的学科，它着重研究教育、教学的客观规律，通过一套范畴（概念）如教育、教学的任务、内容、过程、原则、方法、组织形式和效果等，建立从“教”的角度出发的本理论体系，揭示了教学机制，但它并不研究学生学习的内部机制。而学习理论则是探索人类学习的内部心理机制，着重研究学生学习的内部因素。这两方面的基本理论为解决教育、教学问题，为制定和选择教学方案提供了关于教学机制和学习机制的科学依据。教学系统设计为了追求教学效果的最优化，不仅关心如何教，更关心学生如何学，因此在系统分析、解决教学问题的过程中注意把人类对教与学的研究成果和理论综合应用于教学实践。教学系统设计起到连接学科的作用一方面是指教学理论与学习理论在设计实践中的相连接，另一方面尤为重要的，就是教学系统设计把教与学的理论与教学实践活动紧密地连接起来。

作为应用学科，教学系统设计在其科学实践中，又不断地检验和发展学与教的理论，因此有许多教育心理学家致力于教学系统设计的研究并成为教学系统设计的专家。另外，教学系统设计自身的理论和方法也都是操作性、实践性很强的用于分析、解决教学实际问题的理论和方法。

二、教学系统设计也是一门设计学科

设计的本质在于决策、问题求解和创造。教学系统设计的实质就是教学问题求解，并侧重于问题求解中方案的寻找和决策过程。它不是发现客观存在的、还不曾为人所知的教学规律，而是要运用已知的教学规律去创造性地解决教学问题。面向实际，正是教学系统设计的一个突出标志。

教学系统设计和所有的设计科学一样，虽然应用了大量的科学原理、科学知识，但其基本出发点是要告诉人们应当怎样做才能达到目的，应当如何行事才能更有效。理论按性质可分为规定性理论和描述性理论两大类。描述性理论是揭示事物发展的客观规律，用数学语言来表达便是：在条件a(a1,a2,„„an)下，如果实施教学策略A(A1、A2„„Am)，对出现的结果a(a1、a2„„an)进行描述；规定性理论一般是以描述性理论揭示的客观规律为依据，关注达到理想结果所采用的最优策略与方法，即在条件a(a1、a2„„an）下，为获得理想结果a(a1,a2,„„an)，需要执行的策略A(A1、A2„„Am)是什么。教学系统设计理论正是以达到教学目标作为出发点，在一定的教学条件下去选择和确定最好的教学策略，所以它是一种规定性理论。但这种策略的制定是以学习理论、教学理论等描述性理论作为科学依据的。

一切设计科学的强大生命力在于它抓住了设计活动最根本的因素--人类设计技能。教学系统设计也是从这种智慧和技能上去描述一般设计过程，提出了普遍适用的教学系统设计过程模式。这样就为恰当应用已总结出来的现有设计方法和开发更加有效的设计方法提供了可靠依据。

发展历史