第一篇:欧洲文化入门要点
WEEK 1-3
Reformation and Counter-Reformation P138-139
The Reformation was a 16th century religious movement as well as a socio-political movement.It begin with Martin Luther‘s 95 thesis in 1517.This movement aimed at opposing the absolute authority of the Roman Catholic Church and replacing it with the absolute authority of the Bible,The demands of the reformists:
---direct communication between the individual and God
---simplifying rituals
---abolishing heavy taxes levied on their countrymen
---abolishing the indulgences
1)Pre-Luther Religious Reformers
John Wycliffe(about 1330¡ª1384)p-139
Chief forerunner of Reformation.English theologian and religious reformer.He believed that Christ is man¡®s only overlord and that salvation depends upon predestination and grace rather than on membership of a visible church.He took up the translation of the Bible into English for the first time.Jan Hus(1372-1415)
A Bohemian Czech religious leader, theologian.Attacked the abuses of the Church/ was imprisoned and exiled/ was burnt at stake / the Hus War
2)Martin Luther(1483-1546)and His Doctrines
Martin Luther was the German leader of the Protestant Reformation.His doctrine marked the first break in the unity of the Catholic Church.Beginning of the Reformation p-140
Translation of the Bible
Gospel of love and Ideas of Equality
In the history of Germany, Martin Luther was more than a religious leader, he was a fighter for democracy and nationalism, a humanist who helped to build a competent educational system and a writer whose forceful language helped fix the standards of the modern German language
3)John Calvin(1509-1564)and Calvinism
Calvin was a French theologian.His Institutes of the Christian Religion was considered one of the most influential theological works of all times.Presbyterian government
Calvinism stressed the absolute authority of the God’s will, holding that only those specially elected by God are saved.Calvinism was one of the main courses of the capitalist spirit
4)Reformation in England p-143
John Knox Scottish Presbyterianism
Henry VIII / matrimonial affairs / Catherine Aragon / Anne Boleyn
In 1534, the Act of Supremacy marked the formal break of the British with the papal
authorities.Thomas Cromwell---Vicar-General of the Church, King’s Chief Minister further broke from the Pope, closed the monasteries, took away their land and introduced church reforms.In England, the question of reform was not fundamentally one of belief or interpretation of the Bible but one of rejection of the supremacy of the Pope.5)Counter-Reformation p-144
Council of Trent
The sessions of the Council reaffirmed that the Church had the sole right to interpret the Bible.The Council declared that the Latin Vulgate of Jerome to be the definitive translation of the text.It was also stressed that Catholicism was a religion of infallible authority.The Catholic Reformation, that is, counter-reformation afterwards was to a great extent occupied with the principles and requirements laid down at the council of Trent.Ignatius and the Jesuits p-145
Ignatius was a Spaniard who devoted his life to defending the Roman Catholic Church.Ignatius and his followers called themselves the Jesuits, members of the Society of Jesus.Today the Society of Jesus is still active with a membership of 31000, having institutions in various parts of the world.6)Protestantism and the Rise of Capitalism p--146
Reformation movement broke the absolute authority of the Roman Catholic Church.Protestantism came into being.Liberal ideas
Science
Calvinism
Navigation and discoveries of new lands
7)Conclusion P147
In education and cultural matters
In religion
In language
In spirit
D.Renaissance in Other Countries
The influence of the Italian Renaissance reached every corner of Europe.In France
In Spain
In the north: Flanders
In the Netherlands
In Germany
In England
In one word, Renaissance in Europe ¨produced giants in power of thought, passion and character, in universality and learning.”
1)Renaissance in France
Historical Background
A whole generation of humanists emerged in France.They began to study Greek culture and philosophy and this gave rise to writings of Ronsard, Rabelais and Montaigne.The Chateau of the Loire Valley was a great landmark in architecture
In music, the beginning of polyphony
In religion, Calvinism won great popularity
Huguenots—the Protestant group in France
Renaissance Writers in France
i.Francois Rabelais(about 1483---1553)
ii.Pleiade
iii.Michel Eyques de Montaigne(1533---1592)
2)Renaissance in Spain
By 1479, the union of Castile and Aragon.In 1492, Moors were driven out;Columbus discovered America and claimed America for Spain.The 16th century, the beginning of the Golden age of Spanish literature.Meanwhile, Polygolt Bible
Literature
Miguel de Cervantes(1547---1616)a novelist, a dramatist and a poet.Don Quixote was a parody satirizing a very popular type of literature at the time, the romance of chivalry.Its sources are romantic as well as realistic, truthful and imaginative.It is recognized as the father of the modern European novel, and has had great impact on world literature.Art
El Greco(1541---1614)a Spanish painter
Major Work: The Burial of Count Orgaz
3)Renaissance in the North
Renaissance in the Netherlands
Erasmus(about 1466?---1536)a great Dutch scholar and humanist.P-160Work: The Praise of Folly
Renaissance in Flanders
Pieter Bruegel(the Elder)(about 1525---1569)a Flemish painter of landscape and scenes of rural life.He was called peasant Bruegel
Major Works: The Land of Cockayne(1567)
The Return of the Hunters(1565)
Renaissance in Germany
Albrecht Durer(1471---1528)
He was the leader of the Renaissance in Germany.He was a master of woodcut.His engravings are unsurpassed and his Water colours of animals and plants are exceedingly sensitive.Major Works: The Four Horsemen of Apocalpse
Knight, Death and Devil,1513
Hans Holbein(the younger)(1497---1543)
He was the last great German master of the 16th century.His best known works
are his portraits.Major Works: Erasmus of Rottendam
Portrait of Henry VIII
4)Renaissance in England
Historical Background
The War of Roses(1455-1485)
The Reign of Elizabeth I(1558--1603)was a period of political and religious stability and economic prosperity.The Church of England was re-established, ending the long time religious strife;Commerce and industry forged ahead as a result of the enclosure movement at home and the opening of new sea routes in the world.England began to embark on the road to colonization and foreign control that was to take it onto its heyday of capitalist development.Thomas More(1477---1535)
A great humanist during the Renaissance.Lord Chancellor to Henry VIII.He resigned(!532)after refusing to agree to the king’s divorce from Catherine of Aragon.When he refused to conform to the Act of Supremacy, he was imprisoned, found guilty of treason and beheaded.Among his writings the best known is Utopia(1516)William Shakespeare(1564---1616)
English playwright and poet whose body of works is considered the greatest in English literature.His plays, many of which were performed at the Globe Theatre in London, include
historical works, such as Richard II,comedies, including Much Ado about Nothing and As You Like It,and tragedies, such as Hamlet, Othello, and King Lear.He also composed 154 sonnets.The earliest collected edition of his plays, the First Folio, contained 36 plays and was published posthumously(1623).Taken as a whole, it could be said that Shakespeare’s early works showed optimism and his belief that love and benevolence will triumph over everything and concern for a peaceful and unified England whereas his later works, with deep insight, brought to light the contradiction between the humanists and the dark and brutal feudal and capitalist reality.E.Science and Technology during the Renaissance
The Renaissance, among other things, was a revolt against the medieval concepts and an age of creation and discoveries.1)Geographical Discoveries
a.Christopher Columbus(1451-1506)
Italian explorer in the service of Spain who determined that the earth was round and attempted to reach Asia by sailing west from Europe, thereby discovering America(1492).He made three subsequent voyages to the Caribbean in his quest for a sea route to China
b.Bartholomeu Dias(1466?---1500)
A Portuguese navigator who discovered the Cape of Good Hope in 1487.c.Vasco da Gama(about 1460---1524)
A Portuguese explorer and colonial administrator.The first European to sail to India(1497-1498), he opened the rich lands of the East to Portuguese trade and colonization.d.Amerigo Vespucci(1457---1512)Italian navigator and explorer of the South American coast.America was named in his honor.2)Astronomy
Nicolaus Copernicus(1473---1543)
A Polish astronomer who advanced the theory that the earth and other planets revolve around the sun, disrupting the Ptolemaic system of astronomy.He is known as father of modern astronomy.3)Anatomy
a.Leonardo da Vinci(1452---1519)
a great anatomist in Italy and during his life time Leonardo dissected more than 30 corpses.b.Andreas Vesalius(1514---1564)
A Flemish anatomist.The founder of modern medicine His work Fabrica marked the beginning of a new era in the study of anatomy.4)Printing
Aldus Manutius(1450---1515)The foremost printer in Italy.5)Political Science and Historiography
a.Dante(1265-1321)
Dante contributed a great deal to the establishment of the equality of the divine power and the secular power.Although a poet, Dante was a great innovator.He regards Emperor and Pope as independent, and both divinely appointed.b.Niccolo Machiavelli(1469---1527)
An author and a statesman.He was called ¨DFather of political science¡¬ in the West.Works: Prince and Discourses
c.Giorgio Vosari(1511---1574)
Vosari was best known for his entertaining biographies of artists, Lives of the Artists(a study of cultural history).F.Summing-up
The Renaissance created a culture which freed man to discover and enjoy the world in a way not possible under the medieval Church¡®s dispensation.In this release lay the way of development of the modern world.The Reformation dealt the feudal theocracy a fatal blow.It shattered Medieval Church’s stifling control over man, thus paving the way for capitalism
第二篇:欧洲文化入门
《巴黎圣母院》读后感
读完了《巴黎圣母院》,文中的丑与美,善与恶,在我的脑海里留下了挥之不去的印象。《巴黎圣母院》是法国十九世纪著名作家维克多·雨果的浪漫主义长篇小说代表作,发表于1831年,小说描写了15世纪光怪陆离的巴黎生活,并透过这种描写深刻地剖析了丰富复杂的人性世界,表现了雨果的人道主义思想。雨果在《巴黎圣母院》中用对比的手法刻画了群性格鲜明,极富有艺术感染力的人物形象,人物之间错综复杂的矛盾纠葛和悲剧命运扣人心弦。给我留下的印象最为深刻的是一组对比鲜明,令人触目惊心的人物形象吉卜赛少女爱斯梅拉达和敲钟人卡西莫多。16岁的爱斯梅拉达美貌绝伦,纯真善良,能歌善舞,她和她那只聪明绝顶的小山羊是整部小说中给人以无限遐想的浪漫亮点,是美丽和自由的化身。但在禁欲的中世纪极端保守腐朽的教会势力的摧残下令人惋惜地陨灭了。20岁的卡西莫多外貌其丑无比,严重的残疾使他一来到这个世界上,便遭到无情的遗弃——先是亲人的遗弃,继而是整个社会的遗弃。然而外貌丑陋的卡西莫多却有着一顶纯洁美丽的心灵,他以纯真得不掺一丝杂质的爱情如同守护着珍宝一般守护着爱丝梅拉达,试图使她远离一切伤害。但在强大的社会偏见和恶势力面前,个人的力量实在是微不足道,致使强悍的卡西莫多,也只有选择殉情这一悲剧。这两个主人公存在着纠结在一起的不幸身世,外貌上的反差也无法掩盖他们共有的纯真善良的天性.。
在《巴黎圣母院》中,有着无数值得读者深思的句子,它不仅仅是现实人生的真实写照,而且通过真善美与假恶丑的鲜明对比,告知读者丰富的人生哲理: 爱斯美拉达是一位能歌善舞的十六岁美女,由于从小被吉普塞人从家中偷走,在流浪艺人中长大,所以不被当时等级森严的上流社会所认同和接受。当她在深夜被人打劫时,被英俊潇洒的皇家卫队队长弗比斯英雄救美,便一见钟情地陷入爱河,而他也被她的美貌所俘虏。爱斯美拉达像所有琼瑶小说中的女主角一样,只要遇到了自己所爱的人,便不顾一切地无怨无悔地爱上了对方。不管这种爱情是否有结果,不管对方是否真的爱自己,甚至明明知道这种爱情不可能有结果,甚至明明知道对方并不真心爱自己,也依然一往情深地爱着对方,依然对这样虚幻的爱情忠贞不渝。
爱斯美拉达不但有一个完美无缺的躯体,也有一颗高尚纯洁善良的心灵。当诗人格兰古瓦即将被乞丐王国绞死的关键时刻,她毫不犹豫地以愿意和他结婚的方式救下了诗人。诗人被她的美貌和高尚所震撼,立刻身不由己地爱上了她,并希望能成为她名副其实的丈夫。但是爱斯美拉达为了她心目中的爱情偶像,平静地拒绝了他:“我只能爱一个能够保护我的男子汉。”并告诉他,和他结婚只是为
了救他的命,所以只能和他维持名义上的夫妻关系。
在小说中“丑”的化身的卡西莫多,是以爱斯美拉达的迫害者的身份,首次出现在爱斯美拉达的面前,他奉命在深夜去抢劫爱斯美拉达。当卡西莫多因为抢劫失败,被皇家卫队逮捕,被绑在烈日下的耻辱柱上受鞭打示众时,他渴求围观的人群给他一点水喝,却无人理睬。眼见着他快要晕死过去的时候,让他没有想到的是,在众目睽睽之下勇敢地给他水喝的人,正是这位天使一样的爱斯美拉达。爱斯美拉达的以德报怨深深震撼了外表畸形丑陋的卡西莫多,因为在他的内心也有和其他人一样的强烈爱心和感情。后来他冒着生命危险将爱斯美拉达从死刑架上抢救了出来,但是,他的丑陋畸形的外表,始终是横贯在他和爱斯美拉达之间永远无法跨越的鸿沟。雨果先生在小说的结尾通过死亡的方式终于跨越了这条鸿沟,我想那可能确实是唯一可行的方法。
但是雨果笔下的卡西莫多决不是一个完美的人物:卡西莫多被副主教克洛德收养。对卡西莫多来说,克洛德是他的“再生父母”,他对他只有惟命是从。然而,为何卡西莫多在爱斯梅拉达的问题上对副主教有了一丝“叛逆”之心呢?——副主教得不到爱斯梅拉达就要将她处于死地,而卡西莫多却誓死保护着她。这难道是因为卡西莫多也认识到了克洛德肮脏的内心以及封建教会势力的黑暗吗?我想,对于卡西莫多来说恐怕有些“勉为其难”了。他这么做只是因为他对爱斯梅拉达的爱,虽然这是一种富有“自我牺牲”精神的不求回报的爱,但在某种程度上来说还是自私的。不然的话,就不会有卡西莫多和流浪的乞丐们在巴黎圣母院的那场大战了。关于这一点,我了解到有人说这是雨果塑造卡西莫多的一个败笔。但是我想,卡西莫多有了“缺陷”才显得真实——他不是一个神,而是一个人,一个普通人。
“哇!”他忽然爆发出一阵疯狂的大笑和大叫,这时钟的动荡越来越快,当大钟的摇摆到了一个更大的幅度时,伽西莫多的眼睛也就睁得更大更亮。最后大合奏开始了,整座钟塔都在震动,木架、铅板、石块,全都同时咆哮起来,从底层的木桩一直响到塔顶的栏杆。于是伽西莫多快乐得嘴里冒出白沫,走过来又走过去,从头到脚都同钟塔一起战栗。那口大钟开放了,疯狂了,把它巨大的铜喉咙向钟塔的左右两廊晃动,发出一阵暴风雨般的奏鸣,四里之外都能听到,伽西莫多在那张开的喉咙跟前,随着钟的来回摆动蹲下去又站起来,他吸着它那令人惊讶的气息,一会儿看看离他二百法尺以下的那个深处,一会儿望望那每分钟都在他耳朵里震响的巨大的铜舌,那是他惟一听得见的话语,惟一能扰乱他那绝对寂静的心灵的声音,他在那里把自己舒展开来,就像鸟儿在阳光里展开翅膀一样。钟的狂热突然感染了他,他的眼光变得非常奇特,像蜘蛛守候虫豸一般,他等钟荡回来的时候一下子扑上去吊在钟上,于是他在空中高悬,同钟一道拼命地摇来
荡去,抓住那空中怪物的两只耳朵,双膝靠着它,双脚踏着它,用自己身体的重量使那口钟摇荡得加倍的快。这时那座钟塔震动起来了,他呢,吼叫着,磨着牙齿,他的头发根根直竖,胸膛里发出拉风箱一般的响声,眼睛里射出光芒,那口古怪的大钟就在他下面喘息地嘶鸣,于是,那既不是圣母院的钟也不是伽西莫多了,却成了一个梦境,一股旋风,一阵暴雨,一种在喧嚣之上的昏晕,成了一个紧抓住飞行物体的幽灵,一个半身是人半身是钟的怪物,一个附在大铜怪身上的阿斯朵甫。
让我印象深刻的场景是作者笔下的当时的那些建筑,那些奢华的象征权力的教堂,人们还不知道可以拥有自己的思想,以及为了自己的愿望可以做什么事情,一切都假借神圣的宗教,一切都假借神圣的教堂来展现,展现建筑家的审美观,也就是个人的才华,或者展示自己的能力,我想那时的人们,把人性深深地埋在一件神圣的宗教的外衣下面,典型的人物就是副主教--克洛德。从那许多的错综复杂的毫无章法的建筑群,我们不难看出,当时人们的内心是怎样的压抑,怎样狂躁,那些像雨后春笋一般从地下冒出来的教堂的尖顶,正是人们扭曲的灵魂在对着苍天做这无声的哀号!
别看面孔,姑娘,要小心。
英俊青年的心常常很丑陋,有些人的心盛不下爱情。
姑娘,松柏不好看,没杨树那么好看,但冬天能留住绿色。
唉!说这些有什么用?
丑人生来就是错,美的就是美的,四月只会背对一月。
美的至高无上,美的无所不能,美是唯一完整的东西。
乌鸦只在白天飞,猫头鹰只在夜里飞,天鹅白天夜里都能飞。
这是卡西莫多的歌声,“歌声凄凉而古怪,很像催眠曲。那是不押韵的诗,只有聋子才作这样的诗。”
浪漫主义在那个时代代表了一种革命的、左的思想,是这个勇敢的思想的勇敢的形式,当然,现实主义也是这个思想的勇敢的形式,但是现实主义同时还怀疑、反思、比较、对照、提问,而浪漫主义几乎就是呼喊,认准死理并且竭力呼喊。巴黎圣母院不是为了讲述爱情故事而写的,完全不是,爱情只是主题之一。巴黎圣母院是对革命的呼唤、对革命者的赞美、对统治者的痛恨、对苦难民众的同情、对愚昧的鞭笞与揭露、对人性的深入思考。
不过,对于那个伟大的时代我的理解还是很肤浅的,我不想让自己在肤浅的时候对重大的主题进行不自量力的涉猎,宁可先说点不那么沉重的,我这里想重点说说里面最微小的那个主题,爱情。我每次读到这里,都深深同情这个不幸的人。也许现实生活中并没有这样凑巧的事情,一个丑八怪之王,却拥有世界上最美丽的心灵,最男人的爱情。雨果将美和丑进行尖锐的对立也许只是因为浪漫主义,可是留下的遗憾却让每个人都觉得特别现实。
书中描写了一个那样的社会,和在那个社会生活中的种种人物的状态,麻木的如那个弗比斯,最底层的如老鼠洞里的那几个隐修女,疯狂的副主教,还有尽全力反抗的最丑陋的卡齐莫多,副主教和卡齐莫多形成了人性上的鲜明对比,同样爱上了美丽的姑娘,同样的遭到了拒绝,他们的爱都是那么的热烈,那么的诚挚,可是,一个是占有,一个是奉献,已占有为目的的,当目的无法达到的时候,他想到的是毁灭,毁灭别人;以奉献为目的的,当无法奉献的时候,想到的也是毁灭,毁灭自己。我想这也就是世界名著的真正魅力所在,他让人看到的不是一个简单的故事,他深刻的揭示了人类内心深处的一些活动,无论放在什么时候,什么社会,人的共性是始终存在的,对美好的向往,对美好的追求,对美好的赞美,人是一个天使和魔鬼的综合体,人和人的经历没有相同的,也就是说,社会本身就不可能让所有人享受到同等的待遇,这种不一样的待遇,让多少人的内心失去了平衡,失去了对美好的追求阿!林林总总的肮脏的巧取豪夺,充斥着我们的眼睛,振荡着我们心灵,我们该怎么办?我想每一个人都会有一个属于自己的答案。而文中那些标志性的建筑的描绘以及那个时代的衣着和语言无不体现了那个独特的时代的特征。
第三篇:欧洲文化入门读后感
《欧洲文化入门》读后感
国庆这段时间我阅读了王佐良先生的《欧洲文化入门》,这是一本文化类的好书,我读后自觉受益良多。
为什么选择读这本书呢?我觉得作为一个英语专业的学生,我在阅读不少英文杂志和小说甚至看英文电影都感觉有不少困难,究其原因除了词汇原因外还有很多原因是因为缺乏对欧洲文化知识的了解。英语中有数不清的典故,名人名言,成语,人名,地名等等来自于古希腊罗马的哲学文学,历史著作,圣经,或者牵扯到各个时期的思想,科技,政治,社会等重要事件和人物。对这些知识的一知半解或者全然不知给英语学习带来来了不少困难。而如果我们对这些知识有一定了解,对于英语学习和研究无异于是很大的助力。举几个最简单的例子,如果我们知道希腊神话特洛伊战争中的传令官嗓门洪亮的Stentor,那么在背诵单词stentorian(声音洪亮的)时候,它的意思便不难记住了,在研究英语构词法时可以发现有不少出自典故的词汇。在翻译的时候,如果我们知道“white elephant”的典故,在英语中是指大而无用的东西,那么就不会把商标“白象”译为“white elephant”了。如果要研究文学,跨文化交际,那么文化的重要性更是不言而喻了,所以我把《欧洲文化入门》作为读的第一本书。
在阅读过后,我觉得这本书有若干优点:首先,该书较系统地介绍了欧洲的社会和文化发展史,文笔流畅,文体清新、明快,很适合英语专业学生阅读;再次,本书的内容十分广泛,涵盖了欧洲文化的一切-从古希腊和古罗马文化和历史到现代主义,可以说包罗万象、面面俱到。
整本书采用了历史叙述法,全部内容按时间顺序分为十章:
1.希腊,罗马文化
2.基督教及《圣经》
3.中世纪
4.文艺复兴与宗教改革
5.17世纪
6.启蒙运动
7.浪漫主义
8.马克思主义与达尔文学说
9.现实主义
10.现代主义及其他
我在这段时间快速浏览了本书的框架,重点阅读了前四章。
读过希腊和罗马文化,可以说古希腊文明的发展是相当灿烂的,哲学思想方面,古希腊出现了多位非常出色的哲学家如,苏格拉底、柏拉图、亚里士多德等。建筑上古希腊给后世留下了许多珍贵的建筑遗产如雅典卫城、太阳神殿至今仍然影响着西方的建筑风格。文学方面,古希腊的神话、荷马史诗还有伊索寓言等这些文学作品不仅奠定了整个西方文学的基础同时也为后世研究西方文明提供了宝贵的财富。可以说古希腊文学是整个西方文学的精神源泉。数学方面,古希腊出现了多位优秀的数学家,奠定了现代数学的基础。
基督和圣经让我了解了犹太教与基督教的关系,基督教的教义核心,旧约的摩西五经,十诫,列王记,罗马帝国衰亡的原因,基督教与罗马帝国政府的关系的发展,基督教教士对维系和发展西方文明的贡献,圣经对西方的影响或贡献。通过对这章的阅读大致了解了基督教发展的历史阶段,每一阶段的社会状况,它为什么会从被迫害变成成为统治阶级的工具,统治阶级又是如何一步步将它从摈弃,迫害变为合法,变为国教的的。
文艺复兴时期是欧洲封建社会逐渐解体,资本主义生产方式在封建社会母体内蕴育的时期,也是欧洲从中世纪封建社会向资本主义过渡的历史转折时期.从十四世纪开始,欧洲封建社会陆续出现了资本主义关系的萌芽;十五世纪末,随着新航路的开辟和地理大发现,世界市场形成了,这就进一步推动了资本主义的发展。
以上就是我在这段时间所了解的我知道我所看的仅仅冰山一角,而这本书本身像一个长廊,展现欧洲文化的渊源,还需要更加深入的研究。
XXXX2013年10月7日
第四篇:欧洲文化入门作业
中西文化精神论略
【摘 要】关于中西文化的具体差异,人们已经谈得不少,但从文化精神的层面上来进行比较则似不多见。按梁漱溟先生在《东西方文化及其哲学》一书中的看法,所谓文化不过是一个民族生活的方方面面,包括物质生活方面(物质文化或器物文化)、社会生活方面(制度文化)、精神生活方面(精神文化),而在种种文化现象后面则有“根本文化”,我理解这里所谓“根本文化”,指的就是“文化精神”。是否可以说,对一种文化形态,可分两个层面来看:一是文化模式,二是文化精神。文化模式难以照搬,但文化精神则是可以学习借鉴的。【关键词】中西文化 精神 文化
【前言】近年来,随着世界科技和经济飞速发展,世界市场加速形成,同时也随着我国加入WTO,“全球化”问题愈来愈引起人们的普遍关注,成为理论界争相讨论的热门话题。当然,通常所谓“全球化”主要是指“经济全球化”,但也并不仅限于此,还包括“文化全球化”在内,也正引起人们的普遍关注和讨论。如果说对经济全球化我们是难以回避,积极争取加入,那么对于文化全球化问题则存在比较多的争论。争论的问题包括文化全球化与本土化问题,现代化与民族化问题,文化霸权与文化主权问题,等等。其中往往涉及到一个基本问题,就是中西文化的异质性与同构性的关系问题。
对文化全球化抱忧虑、警惕态度的人们往往偏于强调中西文化的“异质性”,反对西方文化霸权,致力于维护民族文化主权;而对文化全球化抱积极乐观态度的人们则往往着眼于世界文化的“同构性”,期望借文化全球化浪潮来推动我们的文化走向现代化。按笔者的看法,中西文化显然是存在着异质性的,但在全球化的条件下,中西文化又是可以而且应该实现互补的。那么这就要求我们对中西文化的异质性、互补性以及异质同构的可能性有比较冷静清醒的认识,从而有利于在全球化语境和现代化进程中推进我们的文化建设。
一、关于西方文化的基本精神
西方文化的本源是“天人二分”的哲学观念、分析思维和逻辑思维的思维方式,由此生发并形成它的几种基本精神。一是科学精神。西方文化的科学精神具体表现为科学探索精神和批判否定的精神。所谓“天人二分”,就是把人与对象世界区分开来,甚至对立起来,致力于征服和支配对象世界,以满足人的生存发展需要。而人们要征服和支配对象世界,当然首先就要认识对象世界,掌握它的客观规律,这样就发展出它的科学精神和分析思维方式。
首先在开拓性的认知探索方面,西方文化从源头上开始,就表现出一种不懈地追求真知和真理、勇于开拓和探索的科学精神。比如古希腊哲学就主要是一种偏重于求“真”的哲学,即本体论哲学。所谓本体论,就是研究存在的学说,对于一个事物的存在,首先要追问它是一种什么样的存在,以及它为什么会存在,这种存在是由什么因素构成的,它的原因与结果,联系与发展,等等;然后再根据巳知去推断未知,这样就有了概念、判断、推理,即有了“三段论”的一套规则。由哲学本体论到认识论,再到思维方式,彼此相互联系,构成一个有机系统。由这种哲学观念及思维方式导引和影响,进入各种知识领域和学科门类的研究探索,便带来了各门科学技术的不断建立和发展,并不断拓展其未知领域和发展空间。
其次,西方文化的科学精神还体现在批判性、否定性的超越拓展方面。许多有重大影响的理论学说往往都是在批判否定前人学说的基础上加以探索而发展起来的。在古希腊哲学中,柏拉图勇敢地否定和超越其师苏格拉底的学说,开创
了理念论或超验论的哲学传统;而他的思想学说则又被自己的学生亚里士多德所否定超越,由此开创了西方哲学文化批判否定性探索发展的传统。此后在各种认知领域和各门学科中,这种大胆怀疑和批判否定前人思想学说、实现否定性超越发展的科学范例层出不穷。正由于此,就使得各门学科的知识谱系始终处于解构与建构、裂变与整合的互动关系之中,使各种既成的科学理论不断得到补充、拓展和深化,这样就带来了西方哲学文化和科学技术的高度发达。
当然,如前所说,西方的科学精神及其文化科技,是在“天人二分”和征服对象世界的观念基础上发展起来的。不过,如果以对象为敌的征服意识过于膨胀,超出了它的合理界域,试图用自身所掌握和创造的文化科技无限度地征服和支配对象,也会带来负面作用乃至灾难。对自然界如此,对人类社会更是如此。二是民主精神。这是与西方人的人性与人权观相关联的。钱穆先生曾比较区分过东西方的人之“性”,认为中国人偏于“和合性”,而西方人则偏于“分别性”,这不无道理。由于西方人注重“分别性”,即人的差异性,因此就强调尊重个性,尊重人的自由平等权利,重视人权,在此基础上逐渐形成西方文化的民主精神。早在古希腊时代,希腊社会及其文化就形成了独特的民主传统。顾准先生认为,正是由于希腊社会这种民主的、自由的、宽松的氛围,使得每个人都能充分地自由竞争,充分地发挥自己的个性和创造性,从而创造出灿烂的希腊文明,其中关于哲学、科学、文学的文明成果,至今我们还在深受其惠。[1]可以说古希腊的民主传统,为后来西方文化民主精神的发展奠定了良好的基础。在穿越了漫长的黑暗的中世纪之后,文艺复兴时代西方文化的民主精神,具体体现为一种人文主义精神,比如否定神性对人性的束缚和压抑,肯定人对世俗幸福的自由追求,肯定人生的意义价值,等等。到18世纪启蒙主义时代,资产阶级启蒙思想家提出“天赋人权”的口号,高举起“自由”、“民主”、“平等”的旗帜,反对封建专制统治,积极争取人的自由解放。此后兴起的浪漫主义运动,也是以追求思想解放、情感解放和个性解放为标志的。作为一种体现民主精神的文化形态,在当时显然是为资产阶级革命和资本主义发展造势的,然而资产阶级革命和资本主义发展的目标,应当说还是在于追求人的自由发展。有人认为,西方资本主义的发展本身就是从人的解放和自由竞争开始的,没有个人的解放,就不可能有自由竞争,也就不大可能有资本主义的迅速发展。事实也正是如此。当然,资本主义的发展在反封建的意义上解放人的同时,又带来了人在现实关系中的异化。在这样的现实条件下,西方现代人本主义哲学文化思潮应运而生,其基本精神就是激烈地反传统反异化,反对科学、理性、宗教乃至一切传统文化对人性的束缚和压抑,追求人的感性生命的彻底解放,追求彻底的自由主义。这可以说是西方文化民主精神的一种新的表现形式。
在我们看来,西方文化的民主精神及其人文主义传统,无疑具有双重性:一方面,这种民主精神及其人文主义传统构成了西方社会民主体制的基础,标志着西方社会文明发展的方向,也可以说是整个人类文明发展的重要成果和标志。但另一方面,西方文化的民主精神及其人文主义传统中,也逐渐培植了另一种东西,这就是自我中心主义,极端个人主义,也就是把个人的价值、权力和自由追求强调到极端。这作为一种文化精神和价值观显然也是存在负面作用的。三是法制精神。这种法制精神是建立在西方的人权与社会契约论的理论基础之上的。
西方文化中的契约观念从古希腊罗马时代即开始形成。古罗马的伊壁鸠鲁派倡导:个人在追求快乐时不应妨碍他人,不做损害国家和社会利益的事情;而国家的目的就是保障公民过幸福生活,这样彼此达成一种契约,既保障个人的自
由权力,同时又维护其他人的权力和社会的公共秩序。马克思、恩格斯认为这是一种原始朴素的“社会契约论”。在资产阶级革命和资本主义大发展的时代,法国启蒙主义思想家卢梭一方面提出“天赋人权”思想,大力张扬人的民主、自由、平等权力;而另一方面,则又提出“社会契约论”学说,论证个人自由与社会规范的关系,认为社会权力正是人们从自己的天赋权力中出让一部分所赋予的,社会权力的功能在于通过建立一定的法制规范管理社会,从而使个人的自由权力得到社会的合法保障,当然同时也把个人的自由限定在社会的法制规范之内。这一思想学说奠定了资本主义社会民主与法制的理论基础。从另一个角度看,建立法制秩序实际上也是资本主义发展本身的要求。
资本主义发展的活力来源于自由竞争,并始终以自由竞争为最大特点,以追求最大利益为理想目标,因此资本主义生产总是充满活力。然而自由竞争难免带来混乱无序,那么为避免无序竞争,就需要加以约束和规范,因此法制规范的建立和健全,就成为人们的共同利益和普遍愿望。于是在资本主义发展的整个过程中,从经济生活到政治生活再到社会生活的各个方面,西方社会都普遍注重建立健全法制秩序,因此法制精神成为西方文化精神的重要组成部分。从法制作为一种文化精神的意义上来说,西方文化传统中注重法制、规范、秩序的精神也同样是现代文明进步的标志。但就具体的法制内容而言,与西方社会的民主、人权一样,并与之相联系,西方社会的法制也存在一定的问题,其中恐怕主要是公正性和公平性的问题。在表面上的“公平”承诺之下,实际上可能还是偏于维护既得利益者的利益;还有就是在国际事务中,西方国家常常置各种国际法于不顾,动辄对别的主权国家实行威胁制裁,让人看到的只是强权征服姿态,而看不到他们所宣扬的民主与法制精神,这另一面当然也是无法忽略的。四是宗教精神。以往人们对此关注不多,但我认为这也是西方文化精神的一个重要方面。西方文化传统中的一个重要方面和组成部分是宗教文化,其中主要是基督教文化。历史上它曾占据过重要的社会地位(如中世纪),后来西方的科学与民主精神不断发展,但西方人仍然没有抛弃宗教,据有关资料显示现今西方仍有35%的人信仰基督教,并仍呈蔓延之势。可以说,在西方文化中,宗教文化不只是一种独立的文化形态,同时它的精神也渗透到了整个西方文化之中。过去我们说宗教是麻醉和毒害人民的鸦片,这在人民革命时代确实如此。但是从整个西方社会和文化的发展来看,宗教为何盛行不衰?它有什么作用?确实值得研究。
西方宗教的产生和流行,我想还是与西方的整个文化传统和思维方式有关。如前所说,西方人的基本哲学观念是天人二分、天人对立,一方面是把自己与对象世界(首先是自然界)区分开来,致力于征服世界,并且人与人之间也是不断竞争;另一方面则是把此岸世界与彼岸世界区分开来:人所生存的此岸世界问题多多(包括人与自然以及人类社会自身的问题),因此就把此岸世界解决不了的问题,转移到彼岸世界去解决,到上帝那里去解决;把人间所没有、也不可能有的东西,如绝对合理的价值尺度,完全美满的自由幸福等等,都放到彼岸的天国去,作为人类的一种永恒的信仰。这样,人们在现实生活中,一方面是把彼岸世界作为一种超然的理想境界来追求;另一方面也是在彼岸世界确立一种绝对的价值尺度,用以观照和评判此岸世界的一切行为,在天国与上帝面前求得价值标准的一致性(而在人世间是不可能确立这种绝对的、统一的、永恒的价值尺度的)。这样,宗教在人们的文化心理上,同时也是在西方社会的整个文化价值体系中,就至少起到了这样一些作用:一是精神的寄托与安慰。人在来自自然与社会的生存压力下,在异化的生存条件下,以此进行自我调节,缓解心理压力,求得
心理平衡。二是宗教的原罪与忏悔的观念,对上帝的敬畏,使人对自己的行为进行自觉的自我约束规范,这与法制制约恰好形成互补,有利于社会的稳定平衡。三是如马克斯·韦伯在《新教伦理与资本主义精神》中所认为的,新教伦理一方面适度肯定人的世俗生活享受和谋利行为,以及追求财富的权力,使人具有创造财富的动力;另一方面则又倡导敬业、勤勉、节俭精神,提倡理性的禁欲主义,反对放纵享乐的恶行,则有利于积累资本发展生产,因此宗教(新教)在资本主义发展中起过重要作用。[2] 直到现在,一些西方思想家仍然认为,要解决西方社会的现实问题,仍然需要从宗教精神中寻找出路。如丹尼尔·贝尔在《资本主义文化矛盾》一书中,在批判分析了当今西方社会的种种现实问题和文化矛盾之后,所预想的解决问题的办法,则还在于提倡新宗教,至于这种新宗教的具体内容是什么,他似乎也语焉不详。[3] 从总体上看,西方文化在天人二分的哲学观念和分析思维的基础上,历来是追求科学精神与人文精神的并行发展(当然其中也包含着失衡与寻求平衡的矛盾运动),从而形成了自身特有的文化精神及其传统。
二、关于中国文化的基本精神
中国文化传统可以分两个阶段讲:一是中国古代文化传统;二是中国现代文化传统。二者显然有很大的不同。讲中国文化的基本精神,当然先要从中国古代文化传统讲起。中国古代文化可谓驳杂精深,诸子百家、三教九流,各种思想观念都有。多元文化格局中,影响最大的是儒、道、佛三家。一般认为最能体现中国文化精神的,是儒、道两家(佛教的中国化,属于外来文化本土化的一例)。但二者谁更重要,则又有不同看法。通常认为儒家文化占主导地位,是因为它在中国历史上长期属于官方文化,是占统治地位的文化,影响当然巨大。但也有人(如鲁迅等)认为,从民间生活和民间文化形态方面来看,还是道家文化具有更大的影响,这似乎也不无道理。
【结束语】 具有特定的环境条件制约的文化模式也许是难以照搬的,但作为一种文化精神则是可以借鉴和吸纳的。比如西方的民主体制模式可能难以完全照搬过来,但民主精神显然是可以学习借鉴的,如果连作为一种文化精神的民主精神也不愿承认和不肯接受,那就很难谈得上推进当今的民主建设,其他方面当然也是同样的道理。正因此,在当今的比较文化研究中,不是仅仅局限于各种文化模式的比较,而是适当超越文化模式的层面,加强文化精神的研究,乃至深入探讨不同文化间的异质同构性,以及不同文化实现互补融合的可能性,这对于当代文化建设也许是更为必要的。【参考书目】
[1]《顾准文集》,贵州人民出版社1994年,[8] 转引自金冲及《经济全球化趋势下的中华文化走向》,《人民日报》2001年1月4日。
第五篇:欧洲文化入门小论文
Renaissance’s influence on Europe Introduction
The word “Renaissance” means “rebirth”.It meant the reintroduction into Western Europe of the full cultural heritage of Greece and Rome.The essence of the Renaissance is Humanism.Attitudes and feelings which had been characteristic of the 14th and 15th centuries persisted well down into the era of Humanism and Reformation.In my paper, I do like to talk about the influence on the Europe which brought by Renaissance, it will be elaborated in aspects of art, economy, politic and humanism.Basic origin of Renaissance On 14th century, with the development of factory manufacturing and commodity economy,capitalist economic relations had gradually formed inside the European feudal system.In the aspect of politics,feudal separationist rules had caused epidemic discontent, and people began to have national consciousness.The public in Europe expressed their strong desires about unity of nation.Thereby, culture and arts areas also showed the interests and requirements about the emerging capitalism in this new period.Thus here came the Renaissance.Renaissance refers to a ideological and cultural movement which started in cities among Italy from 13th century,then extended to western European countries and finally prevailed in the whole Europe.It brought a revolution period of science and arts.Besides, it lifted the curtain on the history of Europe.Renaissance is recognized as the dividing line between the middle ages and modern times.Influence
Renaissance has an important impact on art, economy, political and humanism of Europe.It is the New Culture Movement and Cultural Revolution of the bourgeoisie.Art
In art, the most prosperous period of Italian Renaissance was the 16th century.It’s representative artist are Da Vinci, Michelangelo and Raphael.Renaissance brought about sense of change in all aspects of life and a favorable atmosphere for artistic innovation and experimentation.Colours of arts are very varied and graceful and artist used bright colours bravely to show that people had entered a new period of golden age.Talented artist used their opus to reflect the transition of the thought in the society.For example, Mona Lisa Smile, magnum opus from Da Vinci, it described a wife of merchant instead of noblewoman.This painting told people life can be happy even in such a dark society like that time and it also hinted the change of women’s society statuses.This portraiture was recognized as the laurel of world arts masterpiece.It conveys appreciation to beauty of women and the abundant spirit life of people.What’s more, wealth gathered in towns created demand for refinement in arts and variety in form and content.Renaissance replaced the medieval notions of painting and sculpture as crafts only to decorate churches by that of highly intellectual artistic accomplishments, with merge of art and science.For example, Villa Rotonda , Notre Dame de Paris, St Peter's and so on.Its also prevent free literary creation, but its restless curiosity, its interest in the world and its urban influences created a demand for a native literature that expressed the new life then;and its individuality with a concern for fame drove writers to do experiments to win praise from critics and support from patrons.For example, Dante’s The Divine Melody and Petrarch’s Love sonnets.The arts in Renaissance not only establish the foundation of European realism arts, but also impel people to pursuit better society lives with its profound spiritual connotation and exquisite artistry.The masterpieces which created in Renaissance are captivating and master-designed.They become the priceless treasures in treasure house of human.Renaissance had a great influence on development of the world’s art, it can encourage people to lead a positive life and it proposed the explore spirit.It played a essential role in the development of human beings.Economy In financial terms, Renaissance, as a mind emancipation movement to develop and expand cultural of the emerging bourgeoisie, laid an important foundation of the sprout of the early capitalism in it’s transmit.In the meantime, Renaissance accumulated original wealth for the early capitalism.Renaissance first started from Italy, and then transferred to Atlantic coast from the Mediterranean Coast by transmission.Many famous boom city like Roman, Florence, Venice and other cities appeared.Capitalist industry and commerce began to develop prosperously.What’s more, capital started to swarm into the pockets of capitalism.Renaissance provided requirements to exploitation of the new route, reformation of religious reform and the later the revolution of bourgeoisie.Political The occurrence of every important activity will affect the art aspect, the financial term, also the politic.On 14th century, Europe began to enter the modern civilization period.Industry and commerce developed prosperously and capitalism appeared in many cities.Emerging bourgeoisie began to enter the political stage.The needed new ideologies to speak in defense of interests of politic and economy which they pursuit.The needed new academics and culture to support what they want to do.Thus, a totally new Modern spirit came into being.Renaissance was the new culture movement which objected to religious authority and feudalism.Then, how did the Renaissance affect the political system in Europe? First, commerce replaced the Catholic as the unifying force in Europe.Second, because of the bourgeoisie’s struggle for political control, the Holy Roman Empire and the Roman Catholic Church declined.Third, rulers of the Italian city-states thus empowered for expansion abroad.Fourth, on account of their wish for peace and order after civil wars, Monarchies was consolidated in France, England and Spain.Humanism The last part I want to talk is the humanism effects brought to Europe by Renaissance.As an individual, one should get important social position by his ability to gain knowledge.With this view, architects begin to design as people-based, painters and sculptors paid much attention to individuals.People tried to comprehend physiology and psychology structure of human beings and thinking process.Renaissance and its accompanying humanist philosophy were the most important reform in the history of human beings.The centre of this power was a knowledge group which named humanist.They pursuit the concept of humanism and their basic theory was realism.Their purposes were reclaiming peaceful and happy lives for people.Humanism studied the value of people, the spirit of people, the life of people and the felicity of people.Then, how did the Renaissance affect the development of humanism? Renaissance made philosophy emphasized the dignity and worth of the individual, it was the originated in the study of classical culture.By the study of grammar, rhetoric, history, poetry and ethics of humanities, people developed his
physically, morally and intellectually.Humanism brought a new art form by its totally new understanding about the civilization and the world.It connects people and space.Conclusion
Renaissance was the shed between middle ages and modern times.It was the consensus premise for bourgeois revolution.It assisted Europe getting rid of the constraints from feudal religious and it was the prelude for Europe to expand to the world.Reference 徐新编著《西方文化史》 北京大学出版社 叶胜年著《西方文化史鉴》 上海外国语教育学院