英语语言学总结

第一篇：英语语言学总结

1.The fact that there is no logcial or intrinsic connection between a sound and a meaning is called what design feature of language?(Arbitrariness)

2.The actual use of language knowledge is called what by Chomsky?Performance

3.Any syllable can not be exempted from a what?

vowel

4.Free morphemes have two types, what are they?

Lexical morphemes and functional morphemes

5.Which two consonants are liquids?

[l][r]

6.Which vowel is rounded and open?

[o]

7.What is formalism in linguistics?

Formalism or formal linguisitics is the study of the abstract forms of languige and the internal relations.8.What is a minimal pair?

Pairs of words which differ from each other only by one sound.9.What is a bound morpheme?

Some morphemes cannot normally stand alone, but function only as parts of words.10.What is langue?

Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.11.Describe the sound features:

[g]:stop, velar

[m]:bilabial, nasal

[w]:bilabial,glide

[^]:central, unrounded, semi-open

[f]:labiodental, liquid, fricative

1.The study about the meanings is which branch of linguistics? Smantics

2.Suprasemental features include four, name two.Stress and intonation

3.Sounds that are produced with no obstruction of airstream are called what?

Voiceless sounds

4.Language is used to build or maintain social contact reflects which function?

Phatic function/communion

5.Name the two affricates.6.Which vowel is close, front and long?

[i:]

7.What is phonetics?

Phonetics is the scientific study of speech sounds.8.What is allomorph?

An allomorph is a member of a set of morphs which represent the same morpheme.9.What is competence?

10.What is a derivation morpheme?

Derivation morphemes are used to make new words in the language and are often used to make words of a different grammatical category from the stem.11.Describe the sound features:

[b]:bilabial, stop

[k]:velar,stop

[f]:labiodental, fricative

[∫]:palatal, fricative

[a:]unrounded, back, long, open

1.The fact that man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of communication reflects what design feature of language?

Specialization

2.The particular realization of langue is what?

3.Describe the syllable structure.V CV VC CVC CCVC VCC CCCVC CVCC CVCCC

4.Words formed from the first letters of a series of words and

pronounced as single words, what are they called?

Acronym

5.Voiced palatal fricative is which sound?

6.Which vowel is unrounded and back?[a:]

7.What is language?

Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.8.What is syntagmatic relation?

Syntagmatic relation refers to the horizontal relationship between linguisitc elements, which form linear squences.9.What is a morpheme?

A morpheme is a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function.10.What is derivation?0

Dereivation is a way of word formation, which is done by adding affixes to other words or morphemes.11.Describe the sound features:

[i:]:long, closed, front

[t]:alveolar, stop

[v]:labiodental, fricative

[l]:liquid,fricative

[h]:liquid, frictive, glottal

1.Who distinguishes Competence and Performance?

Noam Chosmsky

2.The vertical relation between linguistic elements is called what relation?

Paradigmatic relations.3.The two levels of language--sound and meaning make which design feature of language?

Duality

4.The phenomenon that one sound is influenced by neighboring sounds is called what?

Assimilation

5.The two semi-vowels are what?

[j] [w]

6.Which vowel is long, central?

7.What is a phoneme?

Phonemes are the phonological units of language.8.What is an inflectional morpheme?

9.What is synchronic linguistics?

Synchronic linguistics is the study of language at one particular time.10.What is a compound?

Building new words by putting two words together is called compound.11.Describe the sound features:

[p]:bilabial, stop, liquid

[v]:labioldental, fricative

[l]:alveolar, liquid

[n]:nasal, alveolar

[e]:semi-opened, front, short, unrounded

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第二篇：《英语语言学导论》课程总结

外国语系《英语语言学导论》课程建设总结

一、课程介绍

《语言学导论》是英语专业高年级的英语专业知识必修课程。教学目的在于使学生了解人类语言研究的丰富成果，提高其对语言的社会、人文、经济、科技以及个人修养等方面重要性的认识，培养语言意识，发展理性思维。有助于拓宽学生的思路和视野，全面提高学生的素质。教学内容主要包括：语言的性质、特征和功能；语言构造；语义研究；语言与社会、文化的关系；语用原则。语言学理论与语言教学的关系以及现代语言学流派作为选讲内容。开设在第6学期，3学时／周，总学时为54学时。

二、课程负责人 余泽标 副教授

三、教学队伍 余泽标 副教授 张安律 副教授 徐飞 讲师

四、教材及教学参考书目

1、胡壮麟，《语言学教程（修订版）》，北京大学出版社，2001年第1版。

2、戴伟栋，何兆熊，《简明英语语言学教程》，上海外语教育出版社，2002年第1版。

3、王德春，《语言学概论》，上海外语教育出版社，2000年第1版。

4、胡壮麟，《语言学教程（修订版中译本）》，北京大学出版社，2002年第1版。

5、杨信彰，《语言学概论》，高等教育出版社，2005年第1版。

五、教学大纲

已制订有《语言学导论》课程教学大纲

六、教案（附后）

七、教学改革及效果

1、改革教学内容和手段，采用自制多媒体课件教学，重点突出与实际语言运用相关的内容，以利于学生接受和理解。

2、突破传统教学模式，把系统的语言理论与语言分析相结合，从根本上改变语言学教学枯燥无味的教学模式，有利地促使学生认识到了对语言学理论学习的必要性和重要性。

3、学习形式多样化，重在激发学生兴趣、扩展学生积极投入学习的空间、培养有效语言思维习惯。课堂学习既有准备充分的讲解又有启发思维的讨论，使学生既受到系统的专业训练又获得实际操作的技能。

八、建设规划

规划在2008年将该课程建设成为校级重点课程，同时加强教学内容和手段的改革，制作更完善的多媒体教学课件，提高教学效果。

第三篇：英语语言学概论--整理

1.Design feature(识别特征)refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.2.Productivity(能产性)refers to the ability that people have in making and comprehending indefinitely large quantities of sentences in their native language.3.arbitrariness(任意性)Arbitrariness refers to the phenomenon that there is no motivated relationship between a linguistic form and its meaning.4.symbol(符号)Symbol refers to something such as an object, word, or sound that represents something else by association or convention.5.discreteness(离散性)Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language are meaningfully distinct.6.displacement(不受时空限制的特性)Displacement refers to the fact that human language can be used to talk about things that are not in the immediate situations of its users.7.duality of structure(结构二重性)The organization of language into two levels, one of sounds, the other of meaning, is known as duality of structure.8.culture transmission(文化传播)Culture transmission refers to the fact that language is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by inheritance.9.interchangeability(互换性)Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages.1.★What is language? Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.This definition has captured the main features of language.First, language is a system.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense.The third feature of language is symbolic nature.2.★What are the design features of language? Language has seven design features as following: 1)Productivity.2)Discreteness.3)Displacement 4)Arbitrariness.5)Cultural transmission 6)Duality of structure.7)Interchangeability.3.Why do we say language is a system? Because elements of language are combined according to rules, and every language contains a set of rules.By system, the recurring patterns or arrangements or the particular ways or designs in which a language operates.And the sounds, the words and the sentences are used in fixed patterns that speaker of a language can understand each other.4.★(Function of language.)According to Halliday, what are the initial functions of children’s language? And what are the three functional components of adult language? I.Halliday uses the following terms to refer to the initial functions of children’s language: 1)Instrumental function.工具功能 2)Regulatory function.调节功能

3)Representational function.表现功能 4)Interactional function.互动功能 5)Personal function.自指性功能

6)Heuristic function.启发功能 [osbQtq`kf`h] 7)Imaginative function.想象功能 II.Adult language has three functional components as following: 1)Interpersonal components.人际 2)Ideational components.概念 3)Textual components.语篇

Chapter 1 Language语言

1.general linguistics and descriptive linguistics(普通语言学与描写语言学)The former deals with language in general whereas the latter is concerned with one particular language.2.synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics(共时语言学与历时语言学)Diachronic linguistics traces the historical development of the language and records the changes that have taken place in it between successive points in time.And synchronic linguistics presents an account of language as it is at some particular point in time.3.theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics(理论语言学与应用语言学)The former copes with languages with a view to establishing a theory of their structures and functions whereas the latter is concerned with the application of the concepts and findings of linguistics to all sorts of practical tasks.4.microlinguistics and macrolinguistics(微观语言学与宏观语言学)The former studies only the structure of language system whereas the latter deals with everything that is related to languages.5.langue and parole(语言与言语)The former refers to the abstract linguistics system shared by all the members of a speech community whereas the latter refers to the concrete act of speaking in actual situation by an individual speaker.6.competence and performance(语言能力与语言运用)The former is one’s knowledge of all the linguistic regulation systems whereas the latter is the use of language in concrete situation.7.speech and writing(口头语与书面语)Speech is the spoken form of language whereas writing is written codes, gives language new scope.8.linguistics behavior potential and actual linguistic behavior(语言行为潜势与实际语言行为)People actually says on a certain occasion to a certain person is actual linguistics behavior.And each of possible linguistic items that he could have said is linguistic behavior potential.9.syntagmatic relation and paradigmatic relation(横组合关系与纵聚合关系)The former describes the horizontal dimension of a language while the latter describes the vertical dimension of a language.10.verbal communication and non-verbal communication(言语交际与非言语交际)Usual use of language as a means of transmitting information is called verbal communication.The ways we convey meaning without using language is called non-verbal communication.1.★How does John Lyons classify linguistics? According to John Lyons, the field of linguistics as a whole can be divided into several subfields as following: 1)General linguistics and descriptive linguistics.2)Synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics.3)Theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics.4)Microlinguistics and macrolinguistics.2.Explain the three principles by which the linguist is guided: consistency, adequacy and simplicity.1)Consistency means that there should be no contradictions between different parts of the theory and the description.2)Adequacy means that the theory must be broad enough in scope to offer significant generalizations.3)Simplicity requires us to be as brief and economic as possible.3.★What are the sub-branches of linguistics within the language system? Within the language system there are six sub-branches as following: 1)Phonetics.语音学 is a study of speech sounds of all human languages.2)Phonology.音位学 studies about the sounds and sound patterns of a speaker’s native language.3)Morphology.形态学 studies about how a word is formed.4)Syntax.句法学 studies about whether a sentence is grammatical or not.5)Semantics.语义学 studies about the meaning of language, including meaning of words and meaning of sentences.6)Pragmatics.语用学

★The scope of language: Linguistics is referred to as a scientific study of language.★The scientific process of linguistic study: It involves four stages: collecting data, forming a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis and drawing conclusions.Chapter 2 Linguistics语言学

1.articulatory phonetics(发音语音学)The study of how speech organs produce the sounds is called articulatory phonetics.2.acoustic phonetics(声学语音学)The study of the physical properties and of the transmission of speech sounds is called acoustic phonetics.3.auditory phonetics(听觉语音学)The study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is called auditory phonetics.4.consonant(辅音)Consonant is a speech sound where the air form the language is either completely blocked, or partially blocked, or where the opening between the speech organs is so narrow that the air escapes with audible friction.5.vowel(元音)is defined as a speech sound in which the air from the lungs is not blocked in any way and is pronounced with vocal-cord vibration.6.bilabials(双唇音)Bilabials means that consonants for which the flow of air is stopped or restricted by the two lips.[p] [b] [m] [w] 7.affricates(塞擦音)The sound produced by stopping the airstream and then immediately releasing it slowly is called affricates.[tX] [dY] [tr] [dr] 8.glottis(声门)Glottis is the space between the vocal cords.9.rounded vowel(圆唇元音)Rounded vowel is defined as the vowel sound pronounced by the lips forming a circular opening.[u:] [u] [OB] [O] 10.diphthongs(双元音)Diphthongs are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.[ei][ai][Oi] [Qu][au] 11.triphthongs(三合元音)Triphthongs are those which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another and then rapidly and continuously to a third one.[eiQ][aiQ][OiQ] [QuQ][auQ] 12.lax vowels(松元音)According to distinction of long and short vowels, vowels are classified tense vowels and lax vowels.All the long vowels are tense vowels but of the short vowels,[e] is a tense vowel as well, and the rest short vowels are lax vowels.1.★How are consonants classified in terms of different criteria? The consonants in English can be described in terms of four dimensions.1)The position of the soft palate.2)The presence or the absence of vocal-cord vibration.3)The place of articulation.4)The manner of articulation.2.★How are vowels classified in terms of different criteria? Vowel sounds are differentiated by a number of factors.1)The state of the velum 2)The position of the tongue.3)The openness of the mouth.4)The shape of the lips.5)The length of the vowels.6)The tension of the muscles at pharynx.3.★What are the three sub-branches of phonetics? How do they differ from each other? Phonetics has three sub-branches as following: 1)Articulatory phonetics is the study of how speech organs produce the sounds is called articulatory phonetics.2)Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical properties and of the transmission of speech sounds is called acoustic phonetics.3)Auditory phonetics is the study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is called auditory phonetics.4.★What are the commonly used phonetic features for consonants and vowels respectively? I.The frequently used phonetic features for consonants include the following: 1)Voiced.2)Nasal.3)Consonantal.4)Vocalic.5)Continuant.6)Anterior.Chapter 3 Phonetics语音学 7)Coronal.8)Aspirated.II.The most common phonetic features for vowels include the following: 1)High.2)Low.3)Front.4)Back.5)Rounded.6)Tense.5 1.2.3.4.5.Chapter 4 Phonology 音位学

phonemes(音位)Phonemes are minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.allophones(音位变体)Allophones are the phonetic variants and realizations of a particular phoneme.phones(单音)The smallest identifiable phonetic unit found in a stream of speech is called a phone.minimal pair(最小对立体)Minimal pair means words which differ from each other only by one sound.contrastive distribution(对比分布)If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of one sound for another brings about a change of meaning, they are said to be in contrastive distribution.6.complementary distribution(互补分布)If two or more sounds never appear in the same environment ,then they are said to be in complementary distribution.7.free variation(自由变异)When two sounds can appear in the same environment and the substitution of one for the other does not cause any change in meaning, then they are said to be in free variation.8.distinctive features(区别性特征)A distinctive feature is a feature which distinguishes one phoneme from another.9.suprasegmental features(超切分特征)The distinctive(phonological)features which apply to groups larger than the single segment are known as suprasegmental features.10.tone languages(声调语言)Tone languages are those which use pitch to contrast meaning at word level.11.intonation languages(语调语言)Intonation languages are those which use pitch to distinguish meaning at phrase level or sentence level.12.juncture(连音)Juncture refers to the phonetic boundary features which may demarcate grammatical units.1.★What are the differences between English phonetics and English phonology? 1)Phonetics is the study of the production, perception, and physical properties of speech sounds, while phonology attempts to account for how they are combined, organized, and convey meaning in particular languages.2)Phonetics is the study of the actual sounds while phonology is concerned with a more abstract description of speech sounds and tries to describe the regularities of sound patterns.2.Give examples to illustrate the relationship between phonemes, phones and allophones.When we hear [pit],[tip],[spit],etc, the similar phones we have heard are /p/.And /p/ and /b/ are separate phonemes in English, while [ph] and [p] are allophones.3.How can we decide a minimal pair or a minimal set? A minimal pair should meet three conditions: 1)The two forms are different in meaning.2)The two forms are different in one sound segment.3)The different sounds occur in the same position of the two strings.4.★Use examples to explain the three types of distribution.1)Contrastive distribution.Sounds [m] in met and [n] in net are in contrastive distribution because substituting [m] for [n] will result in a change of meaning.2)Complementary distribution.The aspirated plosive [ph] and the unaspirated plosive [p] are in complementary distribution because the former occurs either initially in a word or initially in a stressed syllable while the latter never occurs in such environments.3)Free variation.In English, the word “direct” may be pronounce in two ways: /di’rekt/ and /dia’rekt/, and the two different sounds /i/ and /ai/ can be said to be in free variation.5.What’s the difference between segmental features and suprasegmental features? What are the suprasegmental features in English? I.1)Distinctive features, which are used to distinguish one phoneme from another and thus have effect on one sound segment, are referred to as segmental features.2)The distinctive(phonological)features which apply to groups larger than the single segment are known as suprasegmental features.3)Suprasegmental features may have effect on more than one sound segment.They may apply to a string of several sounds.II.The main suprasegmental features include stress, tone, intonation and juncture.6.What’s the difference between tone languages and intonation language?

Tone languages are those which use pitch to contrast meaning at word level while intonation languages are those which use pitch to distinguish meaning at phrase level or sentence level

7.★What’s the difference between phonetic transcriptions and phonemic transcriptions?

The former was meant to symbolize all possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation, while the latter was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.7

1.morphemes(语素)Morphemes are the minimal meaningful units in the grammatical system of a language.allomorphs(语素变体)Allomorphs are the realizations of a particular morpheme.morphs(形素)Morphs are the realizations of morphemes in general and are the actual forms used to realize morphemes.2.roots(词根)Roots is defined as the most important part of a word that carries the principal meaning.affixes(词缀)Affixes are morphemes that lexically depend on roots and do not convey the fundamental meaning of words.free morphemes(自由语素)Free morphemes are those which can exist as individual words.bound morphemes(粘着语素)Bound morphemes are those which cannot occur on their own as separate words.3.inflectional affixes(屈折词缀)refer to affixes that serve to indicate grammatical relations, but do not change its part of speech.derivational affixes(派生词缀)refer to affixes that are added to words in order to change its grammatical category or its meaning.4.empty morph(空语子)Empty morph means a morph which has form but no meaning.zero morph(零语子)Zero morph refers to a morph which has meaning but no form.5.IC Analysis(直接成分分析)IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a linguistic expression(both a word and a sentence)into a hierarchically defined series of constituents.6.immediate constituents(直接成分)A immediate constituent is any one of the largest grammatical units that constitute a construction.Immediate constituents are often further reducible.ultimate constituents(最后成分)Ultimate constituents are those grammatically irreducible units that constitute constructions.7.morphological rules(形态学规则)The principles that determine how morphemes are combined into new words are said to be morphological rules.8.word-formation process(构词法)Word-formation process mean the rule-governed processes of forming new words on the basis of already existing linguistic resources.1.★What is IC Analysis?

IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a linguistic expression(both a word and a sentence)into a hierarchically defined series of constituents.2.How are morphemes classified? 1)Semantically speaking, morphemes are grouped into two categories: root morphemes and affixational morphemes.2)Structurally speaking, they are divided into two types: free morphemes and bound morphemes.3.★Explain the interrelations between semantic and structural classifications of morphemes.a)All free morphemes are roots but not all roots are free morphemes.b)All affixes are bound morphemes, but not all bound morphemes are affixes.4.What’s the difference between an empty morph and a zero morph? a)Empty morph means a morph that has form but no meaning.b)Zero morph refers to a morph that has meaning but no form.5.Explain the differences between inflectional and derivational affixes in term of both function and position.a)Functionally: i.Inflectional affixes sever to mark grammatical relations and never create new words while derivational affixes can create new words.ii.Inflectional affixes do not cause a change in grammatical class while derivational affixes very often but not always cause a change in grammatical class.b)In term of position: i.Inflectional affixes are suffixes while derivational affixes can be suffixes or prefixes.ii.Inflectional affixes are always after derivational affixes if both are present.And derivational affixes are always before inflectional suffixes if both are present.6.What are morphological rules? Give at least four rules with examples.The principles that determine how morphemes are combined into new words are said to be morphological rules.For example: a)un-+ adj.->adj.b)Adj./n.+-ify->v.c)V.+-able-> adj.d)Adj.+-ly-> adv.Chapter 5 Morphology 形态学

Chapter 6 Syntax 句法学

1.syntagmatic relations(横组关系)refer to the relationships between constituents in a construction.paradigmatic relations(纵聚合关系)refer to the relations between the linguistic elements within a sentence and those outside the sentence.hierarchical relations(等级关系)refer to relationships between any classification of linguistic units which recognizes a series of successively subordinate levels.2.IC Analysis(直接成分分析)is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction.labeled IC Analysis(标记法直接成分分析)is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction and label each constituent.phrase markers(短语标记法)is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction, and label each constituent while remove all the linguistic forms.labeled bracketing(方括号标记法)is a kind of grammatical analysis, which is applied in representing the hierarchical structure of sentences by using brackets.3.constituency(成分关系)

dependency(依存关系)

4.surface structures(表层结构)refers to the mental representation of a linguistic expression, derived from deep structure by transformational rules.deep structures(深层结构)deep structure of a linguistic expression is a theoretical construct that seeks to unify several related structures.5.phrase structure rules(短语结构规则)are a way to describe a given language's syntax.They are used to break a natural language sentence down into its constituent parts.6.transformational rules(转换规则)7.structural ambiguity(结构歧义)

1.What are the differences between surface structure and deep structure? They are different from each other in four aspects: 1)Surface structures correspond directly to the linear arrangements of sentences while deep structures correspond to the meaningful grouping of sentences.2)Surface structures are more concrete while deep structures are more abstract.3)Surface structures give the forms of sentences whereas deep structures give the meanings of sentences.4)Surface structures are pronounceable but deep structures are not.2.Illustrate the differences between PS rules and T-rules.1)PS rules frequently applied in generating deep structures.2)T-rules are used to transform deep structure into surface structures.3.What’s the order of generating sentences? Do we start with surface structures or with deep structures? How differently are they generated? To generate a sentence, we always start with its deep structure, and then transform it into its corresponding surface structure.Deep structures are generated by phrase structure rules(PS rules)while surface structures are derived from their deep structures by transformational rules(T-rules).4.What’s the difference between a compulsory constituent and an optional one?

Optional constituents may be present or absent while compulsory constituents must be present.5.What are the three syntactic relations? Illustrate them with examples.1)Syntagmatic relations 2)Paradigmatic relations.3)Hierarchical relations.10 1.2.3.4.5.Chapter 7 Semantics 语义学

Lexical semantics(词汇语义学)is defined as the study of word meaning in language.Sense(意义)refers to the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.Reference(所指)means what a linguistic form refers to in the real world.Concept(概念)is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind.Denotation(外延)is defined as the constant ,abstract, and basic meaning of a linguistic expression independent of context and situation.6.Connotation(内涵)refers to the emotional associations which are suggested by, or are part of the meaning of, a linguistic unit.7.Componential analysis(成分分析法)is the way to decompose the meaning of a word into its components.8.Semantic field(语义场)The vocabulary of a language is not simply a listing of independent items, but is organized into areas, within which words interrelate and define each other in various ways.The areas are semantic fields.9.Hyponymy(上下义关系)refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.10.Synonymy(同义关系)refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.11.Antonymy(反义关系)refers to the oppositeness of meaning.12.Lexical ambiguity(词汇歧义)

13.Polysemy(多义性)refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.14.Homonymy(同音(同形)异义关系)refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.15.Sentence semantics(句子语义学)refers to the study of sentence meaning in language.1.What’s the criterion of John Lyons in classifying semantics into its sub-branches? And how does he classify semantics? In terms of whether it falls within the scope of linguistics, John Lyons distinguishes between linguistic semantics and non-linguistic semantics.According John Lyons, semantics is one of the sub-branches of linguistics;it is generally defined as the study of meaning.2.What are the essential factors for determining sentence meaning? 1)Object, 2)concept, 3)symbol, 4)user, 5)context.3.What is the difference between the theory of componential analysis and the theory of semantic theory in defining meaning of words?

第四篇：《英语语言学概论》精选试题

《英语语言学概论》精选试题

1.Which of the following statements about language is NOT true? C A.Language is a system B.Language is symbolic C.Animals also have language D.Language is arbitrary

2.Which of the following features is NOT one of the design features of language? A A.Symbolic B.Dual C.Productive D.Arbitrary

3.What is the most important function of language? C A.Interpersonal B.Phatic C.Informative D.Metalingual

4.Who put forward the distinction between Langue and Parole?A

A.Saussure B.Chomsky C.Halliday D.Anonymous

5.According to Chomsky, which is the ideal user's internalized knowledge of his language? A A.competence B.parole C.performance D.langue

6.The function of the sentence “A nice day, isn't it?” is

B

.A.informative B.phatic C.directive D.performative

7.Articulatory phonetics mainly studies

D

.A.the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech B.the perception of sounds C.the combination of sounds D.the production of sounds

8.The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in

B

.A.the place of articulation B.the obstruction of airstream C.the position of the tongue D.the shape of the lips

9.Which is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription? A A.Phonetics B.Phonology C.Semantics D.Pragmatics 10.Which studies the sound systems in a certain language? B A.Phonetics B.Phonology C.Semantics D.Pragmatics 11.Minimal pairs are used to

B

.A.find the distinctive features of a language B.find the phonemes of a language C.compare two words

D.find the allophones of language

12.Usually, suprasegmental features include

D

,length and pitch.A.phoneme B.speech sounds C.syllables D.stress 13.Which is an indispensable part of a syllable? D A.Coda B.Onset C.Stem D.Peak

14.Which is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content? B A.Word B.Morpheme C.Allomorph D.Root

15.Which studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed? A A.Morphology B.Syntax C.Phonology D.Semantics

16.Lexeme is

B

A.a physically definable unit B.the common factor underlying a set of forms C.a grammatical unit D.an indefinable unit

17.Which of the following sounds does not belong to the allomorphs of the English plural morpheme ? C A.[s] B.[iz] C.[ai] D.[is]

18.All words contain a

A

A.root morpheme B.bound morpheme C.prefix D.suffix

19.The relationship between “fruit” and “apple” is

B A.homonymy B.hyponymy C.polysemy D.synonymy

20.The part of the grammar that represents a speaker's knowledge of the structure of phrases and sentences is called

C

A.lexicon B.morphology C.syntax D.semantics

21.Which of the following items is not one of the grammatical categories of English pronouns? D A.gender B.number C.case D.voice

22.The pair of words “lend” and “borrow” are

B

.A.gradable opposites B.converse opposites C.co-hyponyms D.synonyms 23.“Big” and “Small” are a pair of

B

opposites.A.complementary B.gradable C.complete D.converse

24.According to C.Morris and R.Carnap, which is studies the relationship between symbols and their interpreters? C A.syntax B.semantics C.pragmatics D.sociolinguistics

25.There are

B

diesis in the sentence she has sold it here yesterday.A.3 B.4 C.5 D.6 26.In the following conversation:-Beirut is in Peru, isn't it?

-And Rome is in Romania, I suppose.The second person violates the

C

A.Quantity Maxim B.Quality Maxim C.Relation Maxim D.Manner Maxim 27.The maxim of requires that a participant's contribution be relevant to the conversation.D A.quantity B.quality C.manner D.relation

三、判断：Mistake is unintentionally deriant from the target language and not self-corrigible by the learner, which suggests failure in competence.答案是：F

四、简答题共30分，3题，要求字数不得超过100。1 画出树形图：The president thinks that he will win.这个题型年年考，07年的句子和06年的几乎是换汤不换药： 3 分析reference, sense 之间的联系和区别。

三、判断

1.Simplification of grammar occurs, so does elaboration or complication.2.Five general types of speech acts share the same illocutionary point, but differ in strength.3.Speakers of all languages are capable of producing and comprehending an infinite set of sentences.4.Phonology is concerned with the abstract set if sounds in a language which allows us to distinguish meaning in the actual physical sounds we say and hear.5.The analyst collects samples of the language as it is used, not according to some views of how it should be used.This is called the prescriptive approach.6.The term “learning”, when used of language, refers to the gradual development of ability in a language by using it naturally in communicative situation.The term “acquisition”, however, applied to a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of voca 7.Broad transcription is normally used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds.8.Sense means what a linguistic form refers to in the real physical world.9.The notion of context is essential to the semantic study of language.10.Language is both arbitrary and non-arbitrary.四、1.Specify the cognitive factors in child language development.2.Draw the tree diagram for the following sentence to show its syntactic structure.The boy who was sleeping was dreaming.3.Specify the five types of synonyms.4.What are the possible causes of language change?

五、评论

Language is not an abstract construction of the learned, pr of the dictionary-makers, but is something arising out of the work, needs, ties, joys, affections, tastes, of long generations of humanity, and has its bases broad and low, close to the ground.Walt Whiteman Do you share your opinions with Walt Whiteman or not? What’s your understanding of language?

第五篇：英语语言学笔记第八章

第八章 语言的使用

在语义那一章里，我们谈到“意义”一词可以有不同的意义，并对其中的几种作了讨论。但是还有一种重要的意义我们没有涉及到。假定有人对你说“You're a fool（你是个傻子）”，你一般都会反问：“What do you mean?（你什么意思）”。这并不是因为你不知道句子中各词的意思，也不是因为句子的结构太复杂，让你难以理解。你清楚地知道you指谁，fool是什么涵义，也知道句子的结构。你不知道的是说话人说这句话究竟是什么意思，有什么意图。或者，你知道说话人的意图，却想用“What do you mean（你什么意思）？”来反驳对方的说法。你这里用的并不是句子的概念意义。这种意义有时称为“说话者意义”、“语句意义”或者“语境意义”。这种意义与我们在语义学中研究的意义不同，对它的解释更多地依赖于说话人是谁，听话人是谁，什么时候在什么地方说这句话。总之就是取决于语境。研究这种意义的学科叫语用学。因为这种意义部分来自语言的使用环境，语用学也可以被定义为研究语言使用的学科。现在如果我们把意义分成两大类：一类与所用的词密切相关，较稳定，是固有意义（语义学研究的意义）；另一类与语境密切相关，不太确定，是附加意义（语用学研究的意义），那么我们就可以说pragmatics=meaning语义学意义）。

8.1 言语行为理论

这个理论是牛津哲学家奥斯汀（J.L.Austin）提出的，是研究语言使用的第一个重要理论。奥斯汀从1952年开始讲授他的理论。1955年，他去美国哈佛大学做威廉·詹姆斯（William James）讲座时，修订了自己的讲稿，把题目从《言与行》（Words and Deeds）改成了《怎样用词做事》（How to Do Things with Words）。该讲稿在他去世后，于1962年出版。

8.1.1 施为句（performatives）和表述句（constatives）

奥斯汀理论的第一步是认为句子有两类：施为句和表述句。在《怎样用词做事》（How to Do Things with Words）中，奥斯汀认为下面的句子并不是用来描述事物的，没有真假。说出这些句子是（或者部分是）实施某种行为。所以这些句子称为施为句。其中的动词叫施为性动词。

例8-1

a.I name this ship the Queen Elizabeth.（我把这只船命名为伊丽莎白皇后号）

b.I bequeath my watch to my brother.（我把手表遗赠给我弟弟）

c.I bet you six pences it will rain tomorrow.（我用六便士跟你打赌明天会下雨）

d.I promise to finish it in time．（我答应按时完成）

e.I apologize.（我道歉）

f.I declare the meeting open．（我宣布会议开始）

g.I warn you that the bull will charge．（我警告你这头公牛会撞人）

相反，化学老师在演示实验时说的例8-2，却不是施为句。它只是描述了说话人说话的同时在做什么。说话人不能通过说这句话把液体倒入试管，他必须同时做倒液体的动作。否则，我们可以说他作了虚假陈述。这样的句子叫表述句。

例8-2

I pour some liquid into the tube．（我把一些液体倒入试管）

虽然施为句没有真假，但必须满足一些条件才是合适的。我们把奥斯汀提出的合适条件简化如下：

A．（ⅰ）必须有一个相应的规约程序。并且

（ⅱ）相关的参与者和环境是合适的。

B.该程序必须正确全面地得到执行。

C.通常，（ⅰ）有关人员必须有相关的思想、感情和意图。而且（ⅱ）能付诸实际行动。

所以，在新船下水仪式上，只有被指定的那个人才有权给船命名，并且这个人必须说出符合命名程序的话；遗赠手表的人必须有一块手表；如果第二天是晴天，那么，打赌会有雨的人必须给另一个参与者六便士。

但是，奥斯汀很快认识到，这些条件只适用于部分情况。有些情况，并不需要规约程序来完成。例如发誓，可以说“I promise”，也可以说“I give my word for it”，没有严格的程序。另一方面，所谓的表述句也可能必须满足其中的某些条件。例如，说“The present King of France is bald（法国现在的国王是个秃子）”是不合适的，就像一个没有手表的人说“I bequeath my watch to my brother（我把我的手表遗赠给我弟弟）”一样。他们都假定某种实际并不存在的东西存在。而且表述句中，说话人也必须要有相关的思想、感情和意图。例如，我们不能说“The cat is on the mat，but I don't believe it.（猫在垫子上，但是我不相信）”

后来，奥斯汀尝试从语法和词汇上找到区分施为句和表述句的标准。他注意到，典型的施为句一般是第一人称单数作主语；用一般现在时；用直陈语气；用主动语态；动词是施为性动词。不过也有反例。用被动语态的如“Pedestrians are warned to keep off the grass（行人禁止践踏草坪）”还是很常见的。在非正式场合，其他语气和时态也是可能的。我们可以不说“I order you turn right（我命令你向右转）”，而只是简单地说“Turn right（向右转）”。陪审团可以不说“I find you guilty（我裁决你有罪）”，而说“You did it（你犯了罪）”。最明显的例子可能是“Thank you”。因为没有主语，表面上看起来像个祈使句，但实际上这是个施为句。通过说这句话，说话人表达了对听话人的谢意，没有必要再做别的事，虽然对方有时会开玩笑说：“你不能只是口头上谢我”。另一方面，state一般被用来表述事情，是最典型的表述动词，却也可以被用来做事。说“I state that I'm alone responsible（我声明我承担全部责任）”的时候，说话人就发表了声明，承担了责任。换句话说，看来施为句和表述句的区分很难维持，所有的句子都能用来做事。

8.1.2 行事行为（illocutionary act）理论

在《怎样用词做事》（How to Do Things with Words）后面的部分，奥斯汀尝试从一种新的角度来解决这个问题，讨论在什么意义上说话就是做事。

根据他的观点，说话可以在三种意义上被看成做事。第一种是普通意义。那就是，我们说话的时候，要移动发音器官，发出按照一定方式组织起来，并被赋予了一定意义的声音。在这个意义上，当有人说“Morning！”时，我们可以问：“他做了什么？”，而不问“他说了什么？”。答案可以是他发出了一个声音，单词或者句子--“Morning”。这种意义上的行为叫作发话行为（locutionary act）。然而，奥斯汀认为在发话行为中还有一种行为，“在实施发话行为的时候，我们同时也在实施另一种行为，例如：提出或回答问题，提供信息、保证或警告，宣告裁定或意图，公布判决或任命，提出申诉或批评，作出辩认或描述，等等”。（1962：98－99）例如，当有人说“Morning！”时，另一个人问“他做了什么？”我们完全可以回答：“他表示了问候。”

换句话说，我们说话时，不只是说出一些具有一定意义的语言单位，而且说明我们的说话目的，我们希望怎样被理解，也就是奥斯汀说的具有一定的语力（force）。在上面的例子中，我们可以说“Morning！”有问候的语力，或者说，它应该被理解成问候。这是说话可

以是做事的第二种意义，这种行为叫行事行为。奥斯汀承认语力（force）可以被看成意义（meaning）的一部分，这时的意义是广义的。就我们刚才讨论的例子，我们也可以说“他的意思是问候”。在本章开头的那个反问句“What do you mean？（你什么意思）”中，mean也是广义的。但是奥斯汀主张还是把语力（force）与意义（meaning）区分开，后者只用作狭义；只指较稳定的固有的意义。语力（force），或者叫行事语力（illocutionary force），相当于说话者意义、语境意义或附加意义，可以译成汉语的“言外之意”。不过illocutionary act不能翻译成“言外行为”，因为前缀-il的意思是“在……里面”，而不是否定。

说话可以看成做事的第三种意义，涉及话语对听话人产生的效果。通过告诉听话人某事，说话人可以改变听话人对某件事的观点，或者误导他，让他惊奇，诱导他做某事，等等。不管这些效果是否符合说话人的本意，它们都可以看作说话人行为的一部分。这种行为，叫做取效行为（perlocutionary act）。

例如，说“Morning！”的时候，说话人表示他想和听话人保持友好的关系。这种友好的表示无疑会对听话人产生一定的影响。如果对话双方的关系很正常，效果可能不太明显。但如果两人的关系有些紧张，一方说出一个简单的“Morning！”，就可能使他们的关系发生很大的变化。听话人可能会接受他这种友好的表示，和他重归于好。如果是这样，回答“他做什么？”时，我们就可以说：“他和朋友重修旧好了。”也可能，听话人对说话人有偏见，把他的友好表示看成是虚伪，一句问候语反而使两人的关系更加恶化了。虽然这并非说话人所愿，但这的确是他的取效行为（perlocutionary act）。取效行为和行事行为（illocutionary act）不同，前者与说话人的意图有关，而后者与此无关。

如果这样定义，那么语言学家历来研究的就是发话行为（locutionary act）。他们关心怎么发音，怎么组词，怎么造句，它们又有什么固有的意义。取效行为（perlocutionary act）涉及许多现在仍然没有搞清楚的心理和社会因素。所以奥斯汀真正关注的是行事行为（illocutionary act）。在这个意义上，言语行为理论实际上就是行事行为理论。

这个概括性更强的理论适用于所有的句子。前面所讲的施为句只是比较特殊的一类，它的行事语力(illocutionary force)已由施为性动词清楚地表明。（www.xiexiebang.comics．The beer was warm.（约翰打开野餐，啤酒还是温的）

（b）The beer was part of the picnics．（啤酒是野餐的一部分）

常规型：

（a）John said“hello” to the secretary and then he smiled.（约翰向秘书问好，然后他微微一笑）

（b）John said “hello” to the female secretary and then John smiled．（约翰向女秘书问好，然后约翰微微一笑）

联袂型：

（a）Harry and Sue bought a piano.（哈里和苏买了一架钢琴）

（b）They bought it together，not one each.（他们一起买了一架钢琴，不是每人各买一架）

偏好同指型：

（a）John came in and he sat down．（约翰进来，他坐下）

（b）John(1)came in and he(1)sat down．（约翰进来，约翰坐下）

为了避免数量原则和信息量原则发生可能的冲突，列文森建议限制数量原则的使用范围，规定它只对荷恩等级有效。并对荷恩等级加了如下的限制： 要使＜S，W＞构成荷恩等级，则：

（ⅰ）对任意一个句子框架A，A（S）必须衍推A（W）；

（ⅱ）S和W必须同等词汇化（因此，没有＜ iff, if＞这样的荷恩等级，以免妨碍“条件句完善化”

（ⅲ）S和W必须“关涉”同样的语义关系，或同属相同的语义场（因此没有＜since，and＞这样的荷恩等级关系，以免妨碍“连接词强化”（同上：407）

另一方面，如果含义与假设矛盾，含义就会被取消。“If the door is locked I have a key in my pocket．（如果门锁着，我口袋里有钥匙）”不能推导出相应的“条件句完善型”“If and only if...”，因为这与我们的假设矛盾--门锁着的时候，钥匙是不会自动到口袋里的。

下面让我们来看看方式原则（M－Principle）。对此，在1987年的论文里，列文森还没有给出具体的表述。他把对荷恩原则的批评和表达自己的观点结合在一起。他指出荷恩没有区分两种“最小化（minimization）”：语义最小化和表达式最小化。语义最小化，或内容最小化等于语义概括化。也就是说，越是一般的词语，语义量越小，内涵越小（相反，其外延会越大）；概括性越差、越具体的词语，语义量越大。例如，ship和ferry，flower和rose，animal和tiger，前者都比后者概括性强。选择前者而不选择后者是个最小化过程。而表达式最小化或者说形式最小化是就表面的长度和复杂性而言的。它与一个词语的语音形式和词汇形态有关，所以，正常重音的词语要比相应的非正常重音的词语形式小。意义相当的词语，即同义词语，组成成分越少的，词语越短，形式越小；反之，组成成分越多的，词语越长，形式越大。例如，frequent（频繁）和hot infrequent（不是稀少），to stop a car（停车）和 to cause a car to stop（让车停下来）。

列文森的观点是，只有语义最小化与信息量原则有关系。相反，表达式最小化与语言单位的形式相关，即与表达的方式有关，而与表达的内容或表达的程度无关，所以表达式最小化属于方式原则的范围。他也批评了荷恩的语用劳动分工。他说“荷恩语用劳动分工中涉及的对立是有标记和无标记的对立，更准确地说是常用性和非常用性的对立，或者说是简洁表达形式和复杂表达形式的对立。这两种表达形式是同义的，二者之间的区别与信息数量无关，而与表面形式有关，所以准确地说，这种含义来自方式准则。”（同上：409）

根据黄衍的说法（1991：306），方式原则（M-原则）的内容如下：

说话人准则：不要无故使用冗长、隐晦或有标记的表达形式。

听话人推论：如果说话人使用了冗长或有标记的表达形式M，他的意思就与他本来可以用无标记的表达形式U所表达的意义不一样，--具体地说，说话人是在设法避免U带来的常规性的联想和信息量含义。

为了说明三原则的实际作用，列文森较详细地讨论了照应指称问题。1981年，乔姆斯基（Chomsky）在他的《管辖与约束理论》中用语法规则给出了一种解释，列文森不赞成他的观点。他认为照应首先是个语义学和语用学上的概念，用语用学原则来解释这种表达形式的优先解读更好。他具体地提出了下列关于照应的语用学机制：

（a）当句法允许直接同指编码时，例如可以用反身代词时，如果用了信息较弱的表达形式，如非反身代词，就会数量隐含非同指解读。

（b）在其它情况下，语义概括性强、信息量较弱的表达形式（代词和空形式）根据信息量原则偏向同指解读，除非：

（c）用了有标记的形式，比如可以用代词的地方用了词汇性名词短语；或者可以用零形式的地方用了代词，将方式隐含非同指解读。（同上：410）

换句话说，既然反身代词和相应的普通代词（如 himself和 him）同等词汇化，而且语义关系相同，它们就可以构成荷恩等级。因为反身代词要求要有先行词，所以它比普通代词在语义上更具体，信息量更强，它将排在前面，如＜himself, him＞。因而，在句法允许使用反身代词的时候，使用普通代词就数量隐含，自反代词编码的同指解读不成立。例如，例8-12b中的him从句法上说，可以换成himself,就像（a）一样，所以，根据数量原则，（b）

隐含himself用在这儿语义上不合适，也就是说John（约翰）和him（他）指的不是同一个人。

例 8-21

a.John(1)likes himself(1).（约翰喜欢自己）

b.John(1)likes him(2)．（约翰喜欢他）

相比之下，因为例8-22a中的φ和（b）中的he处在himself不能出现的位置，如（c）所表明的，所以，根据信息量原则，二者都能产生常规的同指解读。

例 8-22

a.John(1)came in and φ(1)sat down in the front row immediately.（约翰进来，马上在最前排坐了下来）

b.John(1)came in and he(1)sat down in the front row immediately.（约翰进来，他马上在最前排坐了下来）

C.* John(1)came in and himself(1)sat down in the front row immediately．（*约翰进来，他自己马上在最前排坐了下来）

（d）句用了词汇性名词短语the man（那个男人），而没有用代词，根据方式原则，这里有有标记意义，也就是说John和the man不是指同一个人。（e）句的HE是重音成分，也就是说在语音形式上是有标记的，所以也要根据方式原则解读。

d．John(1)came in and the man(2)sat own in the front row immediately．（约翰进来，那个人马上在前排坐了下来）

e.John(l)came in and HE(2)sat own in the front row immediately．

（约翰进来，他(2)马上在前排坐了下来）

但是还存在一些问题。其中一个就是，根据列文森的语用机制（c），可以用零形式的地方用了普通代词，应该方式隐含非同指解读，那么（b）句中的John和he应该被解读为不同指，而这与我们的直觉是相反的。因此，需要进行新的探索，改进列文森的原则，以及斯波伯、威尔逊和荷恩的原则。问题和练习

1.解释下列术语：

performative(施为句)

constative(表述句)

locutionary act(发话行为)

illocutionary act(行事行为)

perlocutionary act(取效行为)

cooperative principle(合作原则)

conversational implicature(会话含义)

entailment(衍推)

ostensive communication(明示交际)

communicative principle of relevance(交际关联原则)

relevance(as a comparative notion)(关联性)

(Horn's)Q-principle(荷恩的Q原则)

R-principle(R原则)

division of pragmatic labour(语用劳动分工)

constraints on Horn scales(荷恩等级的约束)

2.下面是父亲和女儿的对话，分析说明每句话中的行事语力。

[女儿走进厨房，拿着些爆米花]

Father: I thought you were practicing your violin.（我原以为你在练小提琴）

Daughter: I need to get the［violin］stand．（我要去拿琴谱架）

Father: Is it under the popcorn?（它在爆米花下面吗？）

3.如果你问某人“Can you open the door（你能开开门吗？）”，他回答说“能”，却不去做，你会有什么反应？为什么？请用言语行为理论来解释一下。

4.谣传美国当选总统比尔·克林顿要背弃他在总统选举中许下的一些诺言，1993年1月14日，克林顿就此答记者问。当被一些记者穷追不舍，陷入窘境的时候，他说了下面这段话：

I think it would be foolish for the President of the United States, for any President of the United States, not to respond to changing circumstances.Every President of the United States, as far as I know, and particularly those who have done a good job, have known how to respond to changing circumstances.It would clearly be foolish for a President of the United States to do otherwise.（我认为对美国总统而言，对每一个美国总统而言，不针对环境的改变而作出反应是愚蠢的。就我所知，每个美国总统，尤其是那些干得很好的，知道怎样对环境的变化采取措施。作为一个美国总统不这样做显然是很愚蠢的。）

有些语言学家认为，竞选演讲，就像所有的政治演讲，都是CP原则及其准则被中止的典型场合，你同意吗？能否列举出其它类似的场合？

5.“The Club（车棍）”是一种阻塞汽车方向盘的装置能使其免遭偷窃。下面是它的一个广告：

THE CLUB！（车棍）

Anti－theft device for cars（反盗车贼的装置）

POLICE SAY：（警察说：）

“USE IT”（“用它”）

OR LOSE IT（否则失去它）

根据格莱斯的理论，这里利用了什么准则？请举出两个同样的汉语广告。

6.A正在看报，B问他“What's on television tonight？（今天有什么电视节目？）”他回答说：“Nothing（没有）。”在一般情况下，A是什么意思？找出两种情况，使得“Nothing”的这种含义被取消。

答案

2.I thought you were practicing your violin．（我原以为你在练小提琴）这句话的行事语力是批评女儿没有在练小提琴。女儿的回答是在为自己辩护--我正要练小提琴。而父亲的反问揭穿了女儿的托词。

3.我会很生气“Can you open the door（你能开开门吗？）”通常是请求听话人做某事，而不

是询问他的能力。他回答说“yes（能）”却不去做，实际上就是拒绝了我的请求。4.是的，这是CP原则及其准则被中止的场合。格莱斯在表述他的CP原则时，用了“normally（通常）”“characteristically（典型情况下）”ceteris paribus（其余情况相同时）“等限制字眼。换句话说，CP原则及其准则并不是在所有情况下都会得到遵循的。或者说，”说话人相信他自己说的话“这样的假设只是会话含义。在有迹象显示相反情况时，这些含义会被取消。类似的情况有：葬礼上的悼词、诗歌创作、开玩笑。

5.这里主要是利用了方式准则中的”避免歧义“一条。两个it的意思不同。汉语广告的例子如：买一送一；要想皮肤好，早晚用大宝。

6.这里的 Nothing意思是”Nothing interesting（没什么有意思的东西）“。如果A接着说”今天工人在罢工“或”今天晚上要停电“，那么”Nothing interesting（没什么有意思的东西）"这个解读就会被取消。