第一篇：英语歧义现象与英语交际教学论文
摘要:歧义是较为常见的复杂的语言现象,它是指一个语言项目具有两个或多于两个含义的现象,其 类型可分为语音歧义、词汇歧义和句法歧义等。歧义所导致的语言层面和语义内涵的差异令 学习者困惑,因而在交际活动中构成理解障碍,从语音、词汇和句法三方面了解歧义的起因和 构成,并把英语歧义理论研究与英语实际教学相结合,总结出有效的排除歧义的方法,有助于 学习者扫除语言交际中的障碍,正确理解言语交际的目的。
关键词:歧义;语音;词汇;句法;英语教学
语言是一种约定俗成的社会现象,而不是人们根据科学规律创造出来的。因此,语句和语义之 间没有一种必然的一一对应关系,往往不同的语句可以表达相同的思想,而同一语句却可以表 达不同的意义。大部分语言工作者普遍认为,如果语句在结构上遵循语法规则、语义上符合 逻辑常理,其深层包含两种或两种以上的释义,则会出现歧义(ambiguity)。英国语言学家Lee ch将歧义定义为“一个语言项目具有一个以上的认知意义”［1］。歧义现象在交际 过程中又分为无意歧义(unintentional ambiguity)和有意歧义(intentional ambiguity), 前者是由于语言使用者本身或语言结构自身的缺陷,而导致交流受阻的语言现象,是语言矛盾 的自然显露;后者是说话人对于语言结构矛盾的积极利用,它通过多种语言手段在语音、词汇、句法、语境等层次上反映出来,以达到特定的交际目的。
歧义的产生要具备语义、句法和语用三个条件,这三个条件是一个有机统一体,互相影响,互 相制约。语义上的多义性为歧义的产生奠定了基础,句法歧义则为歧义的产生提供了条件,而 语用则为语义和句法所引起的歧义提供了合理解释的多种可能性。本文主要从语音、词汇和 句法三个方面阐述英语无意歧义现象,并结合实际教学分析和总结排除歧义的方法。
一、英语教学中的歧义现象
1.语音歧义(phonetic Ambiguity)
语音歧义是在口语中由于同音异形异义词、同形同音异义词,以及由于连读、弱读、不同的 重音位置等,使听话人可能产生多种理解而造成的歧义。例如 I didn't make a ［seil］ l ast week,英语中的sail和sale的发音均为［seil］,是一对同音异形异义词,于是此句可理 解为:“上周我没制作船帆”或“上周我没卖出去货物”。英语中有许多这样的词,如break(破坏)、brake(刹车),fair(公平的)、fare(费用),right(正确的)、write(写),die(死亡)、dye(染色),cell(细胞)、sell(卖)等。而fan(扇子/爱好者),long(长的/渴望),kind(善良的 /种类),mean(卑鄙的/意味)等属于同形同音异义词,它们在句子中极易造成理解上的歧义。
在说话过程中,连音造成相连的词或词组之间的音位切分的变化,也会产生歧义。如My broth er had a ［greidei］,此句中的［greidei］ 既可以理解为“grade A”,也可以理解为“g ray day”。以上这两种歧义只在口语中存在,变成文字形式后,歧义便可消失。
此外,重读和弱读也会在语音层次上产生歧义。如 Why don't you have lunch with us可以理解为Why don't you come along and have lunch with us 或Why don't you havelunch with us rather than supper
2.词汇歧义(Lexical Ambiguity)
词汇歧义是指对句子中某一个词的意义有不同理解而产生的歧义,主要表现为一词多义和同 形异义两个方面。
(1)一词多义是指一个词有多种不同的意义,这些词之间常有某种内在的联系,在字典中归属 一个词条。如The boy broke the [ZZ(Z]glasses[ZZ)] last week(这个男孩上周打碎了[ZZ(Z]玻璃[ZZ)]/这个男孩上周打碎了[ZZ(Z]眼镜[ZZ)])。有些词组也存在多种意义,如He isrunning after her,这里的“running after”既可以理解为“追赶”,也可以理解为“追求 ”。
(2)同形异义词包括异音同形异义词和同音同形异义词,它们通常形式相同,却是含有两个或 两个以上意义完全不相关的词,在词典中一般被列入单独的词条。如bow(弓/鞠躬),lead(铅 /引导),tear(眼泪/撕开)等词就属于异音同形异义词。再如:Mary can't [ZZ(Z]bear[ZZ)]children(玛丽不能[ZZ(Z]忍受[ZZ)]孩子们/玛丽不能[ZZ(Z]生[ZZ)]孩子);She [ZZ(Z]turn ed out[ZZ)] an efficient secretary(她[ZZ(Z]赶走[ZZ)]了一个能干的秘书/她[ZZ(Z]原 来是[ZZ)]一个能干的秘书)。这里的“bear” 和“turn out”就是同音同形异义词(组)。
(3)词义的转移也会引发句子的歧义。这是因为许多词汇在已有的含义上又产生了新的意 义。如Many scientists and technicians are engaged in the recovery techniques,“r ecovery”原意指“复得、痊愈”,但随着现代技术的发展,“recovery”意指“人造卫星等 的回收”,“(废物利用的)提取”或“(击剑、划船等)预备姿势的还原”等。
3.句法歧义(Syntactic Ambiguity)
美国语言学家Roberts曾经指出:“这种因句法规则使用不当而引起的语法歧义是由于人们 忽视使用表明句子结构的句法代号而引起的”［2］。句法代号是指限定多义词用法 的词缀、单词或结构等,如用情态动词或一般过去时的后缀限定动词的词性,用定冠词限定 名词的词性等。句法歧义现象往往出现在一个可以理解为不同层次或可以变换的结构体中, 下面是几种常见的句法结构引起的歧义现象。
(1)平行结构引起的歧义:句子里的某一成分可以和平行结构中的任何一个结构连在一起 而具有不同的意义, 因而产生歧义。例如: The boy answered the question which histeacher asked [ZZ(Z]without hesitation[ZZ)](这个男孩毫不迟疑地回答老师问他的问题 /老师毫不犹豫地提问,这个男孩在作答)。
(2)省略结构引起的歧义:有时省略某些词会使句子产生歧义。例如: He knows more a bout literature than Mary(他比玛丽更懂文学/在文学和玛丽之间,他更了解文学)。
(3)状语和形容词界限不清引起的歧义。例如:The policeman punished the robber [ZZ(Z ]with a stick[ZZ)](警察用警棍惩罚这个盗贼/警察惩罚这个拿着棍子的盗贼)。
(4)介词和副词界限不清引起的歧义。例如:The doctor looked [ZZ(Z]over[ZZ)] my head(医生检查了我的头/医生从我的头顶看过去)。
二、在以交际为目的的实际教学中
如何排除歧义现象如前所述,歧义的出现是使用者措辞不当或语法结构及意义上的模棱两可,造成学习者在理 解上对特定语境条件下的话语意义和所指的范围产生不确定因素,这种不确定因素阻碍了言 语信息的有效传递,造成理解上的失误。我们从语音、词汇和句法等方面分析歧义产生的原 因,主要是通过对歧义现象的深刻认识,对它进行种种限制,最终达到消除歧义的目的。在 实际教学中,教师应该帮助学生建立英语语言“歧义”这一概念,让学生知晓在语音、词汇、句法结构和不同的语境中会产生歧义。然后,教师可以系统地从纷繁芜杂的歧义现象 中,总结出一些避免歧义、消解歧义和排除歧义的方法。以下笔者结合实际教学探讨如何应 对歧义,力求帮助学生扫除语言交际中的障碍,引导学生正确理解言语交际的意图。
1.语音手段
在语言交际中,语音、语调起着很重要的作用,不同的语调承载不同的信息,只有语音、语 调正确,才可以避免失误,消除歧义现象。教师可以有侧重点地给学生做专项练习,指导学 生使用正确的停顿、连续等方式,区别自己想要表达的重点,控制歧义现象的出现。例如, That's the cell phone you bought me,若重读“cell phone”,并用降调,则表示赞赏;如果把重音移到“That's”,并用升调,则表示强烈的讽刺意味。此外,如果在词与词之间 稍做停顿,互不粘连,也可避免歧义产生。如:I scream(我尖叫)与ice cream(冰淇淋)。
2.词汇手段
在日常交际中,字面词义和意象意义有时相差甚远。教师在讲解词汇时,不应单纯着重于语 音、语义和语法特征,更要揭示其在不同交际环境中的内部变化和外部联系,可将此类词汇 作一归纳,辅之以不同情景,让学生体会使用这些词汇进行信息传递时,可产生不同的理解 和反应。此外还可以介绍一些有效的排除歧义的方法,例如:通过改变词汇搭配或调整词序 来避免歧义。如 The bank is the scene of the murder, “bank”的两个意义“银行”和 “河堤”都可以解释这个句子。这时,可以在bank 前加上修饰语“money”或“river”,句 意就一目了然,不妨碍理解了。
3.语法手段
在书面语中,我们可以运用词法和句法知识,采用调整词序、补全省略成分、改变连词、增 加时间状语、扩展句子、改变句型和运用标点等方法排除歧义。如Mary can't bear childr en可以扩展为Mary can't bear children if they are noisy和 Mary can't bear childre n because she is sterile,这样就清楚地表达了各自的含义。再如,It was a pretty sm all room可理解为:①这是一个漂亮的小房间;②这是一个相当小的房间。如果在句中加上标 点,就可以避免歧义:It was a pretty, small room。
4.语境手段
语境对于英语歧义的确定有着重要的意义,语言形式所表达的意义必须依赖于它所使用的语 境才能得以确定［3］。语境可以分为广义语境和狭义语境。广义语境指与言语交际 相关的 整个自然、社会和文化环境。狭义语境则指上下文,即词组语境、句子语境、段落语境和篇 章语境。如“Afghanistan's occupation”是指“阿富汗占领其他国家”还是“其他国家占 领阿富汗”这个句子是由于所有格的使用而产生了歧义。但如果知道在2001年,美国打击 阿富汗塔利班政权这种广义语境,自然就会消除歧义。
此外,语言不仅是一个符号系统,而且是一种文化载体,语境制约着单位语言的选择,意义 的表达和理解。因此,知晓语境对正确理解语言形式起着至关重要的作用。例如,我们今天 所说的Broadway, 不仅是指一个地理概念,而且是指美国戏剧艺术的精粹。语言形式和意义 的用法都与语境有着密切的关系,我们在教授语言时,应给予极大的重视。
三、结束语
英语歧义问题是一个大课题,它面对的是语言的形式和意义之间的矛盾这一普遍事实,因而 它具有重要的理论意义和实践意义。对歧义的研究有助于我们不断深化对语言现象的认识, 正确理解语言结构及其运行规律,以便能按照语言的规律去学习和教授语言。作为语言工作 者和学习引导者的教师,应重视这一语言现象,将英语歧义理论研究与实际教学相结合,使其 产生语言学和教学两方面的意义。
参考文献:
［1］张逵.英语歧义与幽默［J］.山西师大学报(社会科学版), 1993,(3):28－29.
［2］邱述德.英语歧义［M］.北京:商务印书馆, 1998.
［3］刘明东.语境与英汉翻译中词义的确定［J］.外语教学, 2001,(4):5 4.
第二篇：英语歧义与英语教学
英语歧义与英语教学
李建良
摘要
歧义是语言教学中的客观存在，怎么样正确地认识二者之间的关系，区分不同形式的歧义现象，从而消除语义障碍促进教学，将是本文研究的重点。本文将主要从交际效应的角度出发，把交际过程中出现的歧义现象分为无意歧义（unintentional ambiguity）和蓄意歧义（intentional ambiguity），并分别结合教学实践加以分析举例。关键词
歧义
教学
交际效应
语义障碍
Abstract: Ambiguity really exists in language teaching.The key points: how to understand their relationship, distinguish between different kinds of ambiguity so as to remove semantic hindrance are to be discussed.According to communicative effect, this paper is to cover unintentional ambiguity and intentional ambiguity which comes forth in communication, and analyze them with examples from actual teaching.Key words: ambiguity
teaching
communicative effect
semantic hindrance
一、英语歧义现象
任何语言都有歧义现象，英语也不例外。歧义在语言中的客观存在是不容忽视的。Leech将歧义定义为“„一个语言项目具有一个以上的认知意义。”因此大部分语言工作者都普遍相信，当结构上遵循语法规则、语义上符合逻辑常理的语句，其深层可包含两种或两种以上的释义，则会出现歧义（ambiguity）。不过，以上对于歧义的理解多把它局限于以词语、句子为单位的语言素材中，其实，在语言运用中，我们发现在大于句子的语段和语篇中也会存在歧义现象。因此，笔者认为，我们不妨把歧义理解为“一个语言项目（包括词、句等）或一个语篇（一首诗，一段叙事，一则广告）具有两个或多于两个含义的语言现象”。
目前，大多研究仅局限于对歧义类型的总结、歧义现象的描述，而未将其置于实际的交际使用和实际教学中加以探讨。另外，很多语言学家在研究这一语言现象时，往往是从固有歧义出发，尽可能脱离上下文对歧义的语义制约，来进行研究。从交际语言观的角度来看，这样是不符合语言使用的本质特性的。
二、无意歧义与交际教学
无意歧义则是由于语言使用者本身或语言结构自身的缺陷，而导致交流受损的语言现象。那么如何避免无意歧义有可能造成的对语言交流的损害呢？从教师的角度来看，如果教师首先帮助学生系统地建立“歧义”这一概念，让学生了解到语音结构中，有限的音素交叉组合，同音词或词组的存在有可能导致歧义误读；在词汇中，有限的字母组合拼写，会导致一词多义、一义多词的现象；句法结构中，有限的句型进行组合时也有可能导致歧义出现。在此，笔者就自己在学习和教学中所遇到的实例进行探讨。
1、语音结构引起的无意歧义
口头交际中，连续语篇的听觉单位是呼吸组而非单词，因此有不同单词组成的两个语音相同的呼吸组可出现同音异形的现象。如： Where’re those stools? Where’re those tools? What’re these sticks? What’re these ticks?
不同的单词组成的两个相同的呼吸组形成同音异形异义，导致了无意歧义的发生。这是如果在词与词之间少做停顿，互不粘连，便可以避免歧义产生。或者，有意识的指导学生在中心词周围加上一定的限定修饰成分，也可起到避免无意歧 1 义的作用。如：
Where’re those stools for me to stand on? Where’re those left-handed tools?
2、句法结构引起的无意歧义
美国语言学家Roberts 曾指出：“这种因句法规则使用不当而引起的句法歧义是由于人们忽视使用表明句子结构的句法代号而引起的。”（引自陈汉生《基础英语中的几种歧义现象》）下面是几种常见的句法结构引起的歧义现象，以及笔者建议的消解对策。
a.名b.词（动词）+动词（名c.词）
这是由于某词在句子中的词类解读不同而造成的无意歧义。例如：
Our club demands change.很明显，“demands”和“change”都可以被解读成不同的词类，即既可以是名词，又可以是动词。那么在实际交际中，就有可能被理解成 1）our club demands to have some change.2)the demands of our club are not the same as before.为了避免这种类似的误读现象发生，我们可以指导学生使用某些句法代号来表明这些易混词的词类。如在demand前使用情态动词will，demand 词尾加一般过去时的后缀；change前加a或some。这样使之分别呈现出名词或动词的特征。
b.修饰语+名e.词
English teacher是在交际教学中时常引起歧义的一种现象。它即可能是1）一位教英语的老师，也可能是2）一位来自英国的老师。要限定English teacher是表达1或2的意思，关键在于明确它是复合名词还是有修饰语家名词组成的名词短语。在交际教学中，教师可以指导学生依靠重音模式来区分上述不同结构。因此，教师可以通过帮助学生理解怎样在交际中使用不同的重音来强调、区别自己想要表达的重点。另外，也可以通过常识和交际语境来进行推理。c.动词词组+名g.词（动词）宾语
下面也是引起语言歧义现象比较典型的句子：
The doctor looked over my head.句中的over是副词还是介词？如果是副词，则和动词组成复合动词，意为examine quickly;如果是介词，则和后面的名词组成介宾短语，意为look above。因此这种句子在交际中会有两种解读方式：1医生检查了我的头。2 医生从我头
顶看去。
避免和消解这种歧义现象，可以通过提示学生over一词在句中如果用次重音并且在over前不用持续连音，那么，听者就会over理解为副词，而词组为复合动词词组；反之，over一词在句中使用第三重音，并且over之前使用持续连音，听者就会把它理解为介词，与其后的名词组成介词短语。
3、词汇引起的无意歧义
词汇引起的无意歧义有两种形式：具有多个义项的一个词和拼写相同的多个词。虽然孤立状态的多义词会有多个词义，但在交际教学中，学生接触的语料都有语境相随，起到制约的作用，因而大多数情况下，只有一个词义适合上下文，但如果语境对多义词制约不够严格，就会出现无意歧义。如：
She can’t bear children so she never talks about them.可释义为1）她不能生小孩，所以也从不谈论孩子。2）她不能忍受孩子，所以也从不谈论这个话题。
词汇歧义形形色色：
We saw the light.(我们看见了灯。/我们明白了。)
He is well-known for his long face.(他因脸长而著名。/他因常闷闷不乐而著称。)
在日常交际中，字面词义和意向义往往相差很大。因此在交际教学中，教师应将语言结构和词汇学习和语境相结合，使学生根据不同的语境产生不同的联想；不同的语气声调也会承载不同的信息，教师可以有侧重点的对学生进行专题练习，辅之以不同情景，让学生体会使用这些词汇
进行信息传递时，产生的不同理解和反映
三、蓄意歧义和交际教学
在交际活动中，最令学习者感到难以琢磨的应该算是语言幽默了，而它的根本特征就是利用语言上的歧义。它常常是说话者的故意安排，通过多种语言手段在语音、词汇、句法等层次上反映出来，利用语言细微的差别达到耐人寻味、或出其不意的戏剧效果。
1、语音引起的蓄意歧义
在利用语音制造蓄意歧义交际效果时，同音（形）异义词（组）（homonym）经常被用来进行有意识的巧妙安排。如flour(面粉)和flower(花朵)，need（需要）和knead(揉面)等，他们发音相同，但意义各异，常常会使人产生误解。如一家健身房的广告是：
We have courses to make grown men young and young men groan.这里就采用了蓄意歧义来制造幽默效果，因为grown(成年的)和groan(呻吟)是一对同音异义词，被巧妙的用在了同一个句子中，幽默油然而生。
2、词汇引起的蓄意歧义
词汇引起的蓄意歧义不仅产生于发音相同而意义相异的两个词，也产生于同一个词的两种不同意义，即一词多义。因此一个词的确切意义必须由其语境来判断。语境不同，或语境不明，或故意弄的模模糊糊，多会产生双关或暗指这样的特殊交际效果。比如：
到幽默是智慧的体现。
四、结
语
对交际教学而言，由于歧义现象是结构形式
和意义之间的矛盾而生，歧义的触发、显露、消除和利用的全过程，会帮助学生理解语言是一个多层面、多因素相互协调有相互制约的对立统一体，语言的语音和文字形式之间有着微妙而复杂的联系，这种理解有利于学生树立全面、辨证的语言观，建立从整体上去把握语言的理念。
另外，在英语实践方面，由于歧义是由语言结构和语言意义之间的矛盾而生，因而在组织学生按照交际情景学习语言时，不应忽略语言结构形式的掌握；不应放弃其交际功能的学习。在讲解词汇和结构形式时，不应单纯着眼于其语音、语义和语法特征，更要揭示其在不同交际环境中的内部变化和外部联系。参考文献
“Fourth floor, please.” said the
1、文炼、允贻.歧义问题[M].黑龙江人民出版passenger to the elevator.社，1985.“Here you are, son.”
2、邱述德.英语歧义[M].商务印书馆，1998.“How dare you call me son?”
“I brought you up, didn’t I?”(我带你上
3、陈汉生.基础英语中的几种歧义现象[J].外来的，不是吗？/我把你养大的，不是吗？)国语，1995（1）.因为英语中许多习语不能按其字面组成词的意
4、沈家煊.英语中的歧义类型[J].现代外语，思来解释，而是具有作为习语的特定含义，因此1985（1）.这也成了蓄意歧义的一种来源。
5、贾德霖.与歧义探源[J].现代外语，19913、句法结构引起的蓄意歧义（4）.句法关系的不同也可以制造出蓄意歧义的6、王萃田译.英语结构上的歧义现象[J].现代外效果，即在同一句子的内部因存在着不同的内在语，1984（3）.句法关系而可以做出不同的解释。而形成蓄意歧
7、秦洪林.歧义与模糊辨析[J].徐州师范学报，义。比如： 1993（2）.8、王洪跃.英语句法歧义比较[J].河南师大学 For more than a year, a man had eaten in a small restaurant where the sign
报，1993（5）.9、张逵.英语歧义与幽默[J].山西师大学报，read:“ Mary’s Home Cooking”.However，1993（3）.he had never had never seem Mary.When he finally curiously asked the waiter why
Mary was never around, the answer was
“Mary was just where the sign says she is, home cooking.”
招牌上的这句话，其中的’s结构，从句法结构上看可以是所有格形式，这是意思为“玛丽的家常拿手菜”；也可以是to be的缩写，这就成了“玛丽在家里做饭了”。
总之，在英语交际教学中，教师可以首先引导学生学会欣赏蓄意歧义达到的交际效果，意识
第三篇：【英语论文】英语中的歧义现象An Analysis on Ambiguity in English
毕业设计（论文）
毕业论文题目：
毕业论文
An Analysis on Ambiguity in English1
毕业设计（论文）
Abstract
Ambiguity is omnipresent in languages.There have been a lot of researches about ambiguity in the past.This paper makes a comprehensive analysis on the ambiguous structures in English and classifies categories of them based on the different causes: phonological ambiguity, lexical ambiguity, structural(grammatical)ambiguity and pragmatic ambiguity.The phenomenon of ambiguity, whenever and wherever it occurs, may directly lead to the comprehension of expression and communication.Phonetic ambiguity, that is, a word or a phrase sounds which has at least two meanings, which occurs only in spoken English but not in written English.Lexical ambiguity might cause much more complicated problems in the understanding of the language, for it exists not only in spoken form but also in written language.Its existence is attributed to certain ambiguous lexical items, namely to polysemous and homonymous words.In written language, the most important ambiguity phenomenon lies in structure.Structural ambiguity is also called grammatical ambiguity, which means “ambiguity caused by the varied interrelationships between words in a sentence.Even though none word is ambiguous, structurally it still generates ambiguity”.Structural ambiguity is often caused by the linear order of words in a sentence.It often takes place in spoken languages as well as in common phonetic materials.Pragmatic ambiguity denotes that the language expresses different purposes or meanings in the real application.Ambiguity analysis can help improve the ability in language understanding and language application.Key Words: phonological ambiguity, lexical ambiguity, structural ambiguity, pragmatic ambiguity
毕业设计（论文）
摘要
歧义现象在语言中无所不在，在过去已有许多相关的研究。这篇论文将对英语中所存在的歧义现象做一个全面的分析。根据不同的原因，英语歧义现象总体来说可分为四大类：语音歧义，词汇歧义，结构歧义（语法歧义）和语用歧义。不论在任何时间任何地点出现歧义现象，都会对人们的理解和交流造成很大的困难。语音歧义是说一个单词或一个词组听起来至少有两个意思，这种现象只会出现在口语中。词汇歧义是指由于一词多意或同形异义的原因给人们的理解造成了许多困难。这种现象可存在于口语和书面语中。在书面语中，最重要的歧义是结构歧义，也叫语法歧义，它是由词与词之间不同的关系所造成的。即使一个句子中所有的单词都没有歧义，句子的结构也会造成歧义。语用歧义是指说话人在特定的语境中或上下文中使用不确定的或模糊的或间接的话语向听话人同时表达数种言外行为或言外之意。
关键词：语音歧义，词汇歧义，结构歧义，语用歧义
毕业设计（论文）
Contents Introduction………… ……………………………………………………6 1.1 Definition of Ambiguity in English....................................................................6 1.2 Importance of the Present Study……………………………………………….6 Phonetic Ambiguity……………………………………………………….6 2.1 Phonetic ambiguity caused by homophones……………………………………7 2.2 Phonetic ambiguity caused by phrases…………………………………………7 2.3 Phonetic ambiguity caused by different breath groups and different intonation.7 2.4 Phonetic ambiguity caused by stress…………………………………………...7 Lexical Ambiguity………………………………………………………...8
3.1 Lexical Ambiguity caused by homonym………………………………………8 3.2 Lexical Ambiguity caused by polysemy……………………………………….9 Structural ambiguity…………………………………………………….10
4.1 Sententially structural ambiguity…………………………………………......10 4.2 Phrasally structural ambiguity………………………………………………...12 Pragmatic ambiguity…………………………………………………….13
毕业设计（论文）
5.1 Pragmatic ambiguity caused by implication……………………………13 5.2 Pragmatic ambiguity caused by transcultural background………………..14 Conclusion………………………………………………………….15
毕业设计（论文）Introduction
1.1 Definition of Ambiguity in English Ambiguity, as is defined in the Webster‟s Third International Dictionary(许素波，Types of Ambiguity in English，1999-04), is “the condition of admitting of two or more meanings, of being understood in more than one way, or of referring to two or more things at the same time.” In ordinary books on linguistics, it is generally defined roughly as linguistic phenomenon that a word phrase or clause can have more than one interpretation.Ambiguity, as a pervasive feature of the English language, existing in both spoken and written forms, and occurs for a variety of reasons, such as the phonetic reason that in connected speech, two or more different strings of lexical items happen to take on the same phonological form as a result of sound liaison, the lexical reason, for instance, ambiguity can be given rise to owing to the homonymy and polysemy of the vocabulary, and the structural reason, namely ambiguity can also be attributed to different grammatical analysis of a phrase or clause.Ambiguity can exist in both spoken and written forms of English and arise through a variety of ways.From a purely linguistic point of view, however, ambiguity can be accounted for by mainly four factors: the phonetic, the lexical, the structural, and the pragmatic, hence four types of ambiguity occur: phonetic ambiguity, lexical ambiguity, structural ambiguity, and pragmatic ambiguity.1.2 Importance of the Present Study Through the present study of ambiguity, we can avoid misunderstanding caused by ambiguity effectively.Meanwhile, this can also help the learners improve their understanding and translation of English.Besides, by doing so, language users can get the effect of rhetorical speech of pun in order to enrich the language and make the language more humorous.What‟s more, the study of ambiguity in English may also help to confirm some universal features of language and university of people‟s thinking and may reveal some cultural differences.In short, the present study of ambiguity in English can arouse many people‟s interest and will help people to attain a better understanding of how language works in people‟s mind.During our time of learning English, we should attach more importance to it.Phonetic Ambiguity
Phonetic ambiguity, that is, a word or a phrase sounds that it has at least two meanings, occurs only in spoken English but not in written English(邱述德 英语歧义 1998).6
毕业设计（论文）
2.1 Phonetic ambiguity caused by homophones Homophone means that a word that is pronounced like another word but has a different spelling or meaning(张韵斐 现代英语词汇学概论 2004).The examples analyzed below are several pairs of words which have the same sound but different meanings.If they appear in the spoken language, you will have difficulty in telling them apart.(1)a: He is sowing now.b: He is sewing now.sow and sew have the same pronunciation, however, sow in sentence a means “to plant or scatter seeds”, and sew in sentence b means “to join pieces of cloth together using a needle and thread”.(2)a: Throw the flower away.b: Throw the flower away.flower and flour are a pair of homophones, flower: noun, the part of a plant, often beautiful and colored, that produces seeds or fruit, flour: noun, power made from wheat and used for making bread or cakes.In spoken language, it is difficult for you to tell flower and flour apart.(3)a: He is flying to Oakland.b: He is flying to Oakland.Oakland in sentence a is a city of State California, but Oakland in sentence b is a city of New Zealand.They are a pair of homophones.(4)“When does the baker follow his trade?” “Whenever he kneads the dough.”
This example uses “need” and “ knead” which are a pair of homophones and added the polysemous word” dough”(In slang, this word means money),which makes it difficult for us to know that whether the baker begins his business when he needs the money or the baker begins his business when he rubs the dough.2.2 Phonetic ambiguity caused by phrases Phrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain the following elements: head, specifier and complement(The word around which a phrase is formed is termed head.The word on the left side of the heads are said to function as specifier.The words on the right side of the heads are complement)(戴炜栋 简明英语语言学教程 1989).If the end of one word is a consonant sound while the next begins with a vowel, the consonant sounds naturally to be the part of the next word.This phonetic rule, as everybody knows, is called sound-linking or sound liaison.This phenomenon as often as not cause ambiguity, for example, a bee feeder / a beef eater
毕业设计（论文）
The two phrases sound similarly, however, the meaning of the former is absolutely different from the latter.The former means that a man who feeds bee, while the latter means that a man who eats beef.There are a lot of similar examples: a trained deer/ a train dear;a name / an aim;a nice girl / an ice girl;an ear-phone / a near phone.2.3 Phonetic ambiguity caused by different breath groups and different intonation(1)A range of sounds of some words which constitute a sentence pronounce together without stop called breath group(邱述德 英语歧义 1998).“Peter is a short story writer”
This sentence has two meanings because of different breath groups.One is that Peter is a story writer who is short(Peter is / a short / story writer), the other is that Peter is a writer who is good at writing short stories(Peter is / a short story / writer).(2)The rise and the fall of the voice in speaking, especially as this affects the meaning of what is said called intonation.“I beg your pardon”.If this sentence is said with a rising tone, it means “please say it again”.If it is said with a falling tone, it means “I am sorry, please forgive me”.2.4 Phonetic ambiguity caused by stress Stress means that a term used in semantic analysis to refer to a lexical item which has a range of different meanings(戴炜栋 简明英语语言学教程 1989).The peasant grows a lot of fruit.They eat what they can, and can what they cannot.In this sentence, when the verb “can” is stressed, it means “to preserve food by putting it in a can”, the sentence means they eat the food which is putted in a can.When it is unstressed, it means “be able to”, used as a modal verb, the sentence means they eat what they are be able to eat the amount of the food.Phonetic ambiguity sometimes does cause misunderstanding to people, yet it could be got rid of if enough attention is paid to the context in which the utterance concerned is made, and to the phonetic features of the language in speech.Lexical Ambiguity
Compared with the phonetic ambiguity, lexical ambiguity might cause much more complicated problems in the understanding of the language, for it exists not only in spoken form but also in written language.Its existence is attributed to certain ambiguous lexical items, namely to polysemous and homonymous words which bound in the English vocabulary.毕业设计（论文）
3.1 Lexical Ambiguity caused by homonym In the English, there are many pairs of groups of words, which, though different in meaning, are pronounced alike, or spelled alike, or both, such words are called homonyms(张韵斐 现代英语词汇学概论 2004).(1)He took the lead yesterday.This is a very simple sentence both lexically and structurally, but it is ambiguous.Here the ambiguity resides in the homographic word “lead”.Pronounced either as [li:d],meaning “a leading role or part” or as [led] meaning “a kind of metal”.Thus the sentence may be interpreted to mean either that “He took a leading part(in a certain activity)yesterday” or that “He took away the lead(a kind of metal)yesterday”.(2)After operation, he could not bear children.Here the perfect homonym “bear” must necessarily function syntactically as a verb, but the sentence itself can not tell which of the meanings was intended by the speaker or writer.Does it mean “give birth to;produce” or “put up with;tolerate”? In this case, the context in which the sentence is uttered or used often serves to remove the potential ambiguity.(3)He likes China(china).In this sentence, “China” and “china” may be said to be a pair of homophonic words.“China” with the first letter capitalized, denotes “a country in Asia”, while “china” with the first letter in its small form, means “crockery”.It is necessary to say that this kind of ambiguity caused by homophones, only exists in spoken English.Spell out, and the homophonic word will become disambiguated immediately.3.2 Lexical Ambiguity caused by polysemy A term used in semantic analysis to refer to a lexical item which has a range of different meanings(张韵斐 现代英语词汇学概论 2004).(1)The food is not hot.The word “hot” can be translated into “having a high temperature” or “spicy”.(2)He refused to pay for the board.Here ambiguity obtains on account of the polysemous word “board”.The sentence can either be interpreted as “He refused to give money for his meals” or as “He refuses to pay money for the councilors” or even as “He refuses to pay money for the “table”, etc.in the absence of the context.(3)She is an English teacher.This nominal phrase “an English teacher” can be comprehended in “a teacher from England” or “a teacher who teaches English language”.From the above for examples, a conclusion may be drawn that some sentences obtain ambiguity in both written and spoken form, while some, which are ambiguous in written form，毕业设计（论文）
may be free from the ambiguity in speech or vice verse.It is a fact that most ambiguous sentences of this kind will become disambiguated when provided with the context, but in not few cases they may cause confusion, uncertainty and misunderstanding in the mind of the listener or reader.It is also arranged on the part of literary men for stylistic purpose to achieve a variety of stylistic effects such as humor, irony, emphasis and contrast, etc.For example, a very commonly-used and effective rhetorical device, are the results of making use of polysemous and homonymous words purposely so as to make the sentences ambiguous.Structural ambiguity
In written language materials, the most important ambiguity phenomenon lies in structure.Structural ambiguity is also called grammatical ambiguity, which means “ambiguity caused by the varied interrelationships between words in a sentence.Even though none word is ambiguous, structurally it might still generate ambiguity”(何冬兰 On English Structural Ambiguity 2006-06).Structural ambiguity is often caused by the linear order of words in a sentence.It often takes place in spoken languages as well as in common phonetic materials.Structural ambiguity can be divided into two types, one is sententially structural ambiguity;the other is phrasally structural ambiguity.4.1 Sentential structural ambiguity
This kind of ambiguity only exists within a certain kinds of sentences, which are specially structured.Unlike phrasal structural ambiguity, it could not be discussed without the context of sentences.4.1.1 Caused by the simplified forms of comparative structure In English, adverbial clause of comparative degree is often abridged.It is easy to cause ambiguity.We can sort it out and analyze it.Example 1: I know him better than you.It can be explained as “I know him better than you do” or as “I know him better than I know you.”
Example 2: Lily likes Harry as well as Joe.It can be understood as “Lily likes Harry as well as Joe does” or as “Lily likes Harry as well as she likes Joe”.4.1.2 Caused by negative word “not”
In a sentence, if the predicate is negative, and being attached by an adverbial modifier, it might generate ambiguity.Example 1: Jessica didn‟t prepare her lessons well yesterday.毕业设计（论文）
This sentence could be explained as three structures:(1)Yesterday, Jessica didn‟t prepare her lessons well.(She did something else.)(2)Yesterday, Jessica prepared her lessons, but not well enough.(3)Jessica prepared her lessons well, but not in yesterday.Example 2: He didn‟t go because he was afraid.And this sentence has two different structures:(1)He was afraid, so he didn‟t go.(2)He went, but not because he was afraid.In this sentence pattern, the negative word “not” in the main clause could either negate the main clause or the subordinate clause.Hence ambiguity takes place.4.1.3 Caused by adverbial or adverbial clause Example: Go straight forward and then turn left when you see a children‟s cinema.”
“When” introduces a time adverbial clause.It can modify “then turn left”, meaning “Go straight forward, you will see a children‟s cinema, and then turn left.” It can also modify the whole sentence, meaning “When you see a children‟s cinema, go straight forward and then turn left.”
4.1.4 Caused by fixed sentence patterns Example 1: It is good for him to do so.In this sentence pattern, ambiguity is caused by “for him”.It has two widely divergent meaning.(1)He is so kind that he does so.(2)What he does is good for him.Example 2: Eric is too good a man to kill.The verb after a verbal infinitive could be either active form or passive form.So the subject of the sentence could both be agent or victim.The two structures are:(1)Eric is too good a man for him to kill others.(2)Eric is too good a man for others to kill him.4.1.5 Caused by the simplified forms of parataxis Similar to the simplified forms of comparative structure, in a simplified form of parataxis, the latter compound clause is abridged, leaving only one or two constituents, which might be relevant to the subject or the object(or the object clause)in the front clause.Example 1: Lucy gave Monica a nickel and Mary a dime.Here “Mary a dime” is an ambiguous item.“Mary” could have the position as “Lucy”.Then it is the subject of the latter clause while the indirect object “Monica” is left out.Or it could have the position as “Monica”.Then it is the indirect object of the latter clause while the subject “Lucy” is left out.So the full structures for the two divergent meaning are:(1)Lucy gave Monica a nickel and Mary gave Monica a dime.(2)Lucy gave Monica a nickel and gave Mary a dime.毕业设计（论文）
The use of auxiliary verb is also one factor of causing such kind of ambiguity.Please look at the following example.Example 2: John thought Ivan went to Japan and Phillip did too.“Did” here would refer to either “thought” or “went”.And the two possible structures are:(1)John thought Ivan went to Japan and Phillip also thought Ivan went to Japan.(2)John thought Ivan went to Japan and he thought Phillip went to Japan too.4.1.6 Caused by some word’s special syntactic function
Some words in English, mainly conjunctions, adverbs and pronouns that introduce subordinate clause, have more than one syntactic function.Example: Go and ask the teacher by the window who is going to give you lessons in art.In this sentence, ambiguity is triggered by “ask”, which could be attached to with only a direct object, only an indirect object, or both of them.So the sentence could be explained as:(1)Go and ask the teacher by the window.He is going to give you lessons in art..(2)Go and ask the teacher by the window.He might know who is going to give you lessons in art.4.2 Phrasally structural ambiguity
It‟s common to find one central word with two or more than two modifiers.When being lack of limit of the choice or contextual clues, the relationship between the modifiers and the central word might be ambiguous.English grammar is flexible and changeable.So does the word‟s collocation.Hence the existence of structural ambiguity is inevitable.4.2.1 Caused by Shift of Parts of Speech Shifts of parts of speech have several situations, but basically because of the uncertainty of the word‟s part of speech.For example, “can fish”.This phrase might mean “be able to fish”.Or “put the fish into a can”.The cause of ambiguity in this sentence is the part of speech of the word “can”, which has two circumstances.“can” might be a model verb or a transitive verb.At the same time, the word “fish” might be an intransitive verb or a noun.This is only one common example;I would like to sum up the examples into certain ambiguous forms as following.a).N/V + V/N Example: ship sails It‟s hard to decide the part of speech of either “ship” or “sails”.There are two possibilities: “ship sails(N + V)” or “ship sails(V + N)”.The first structure means “a ship will sail”.And the second structure means “someone will ship the sails”.This kind of ambiguity item can be easily found in telegrams or newspapers.b).Adj./N + N Example: a Chinese teacher This phrase has two structures: “a Chinese teacher(Adj.+ N)” or “a Chinese teacher(N + N)”.The first structure means “a teacher who is Chinese”.And the second structure means “a teacher
毕业设计（论文）
who teaches Chinese”.c).“V + N + V” or “V + Adj./ Pron./ Possession + N” Example: make her dress fast This phrase has two structures: “make her dress fast(V + N + V)” or “make her dress fast(V +Adj./ Pron./ Possession +N)”.The first structure means “tell her to dress herself quickly”.And the second structure means “have her dress made quickly”.4.2.2 Caused by Constituent Structure or Phrase Structure a).Adj.+ N + Conj.+ N
Example: ugly frog and tortoise
The possible structures are “(ugly frog)and tortoise” or “ugly(frog and tortoise)”.b).Adj.+ N‟s + N
Example: a nice boy‟s car
The possible structures are “(a nice boy)‟s car” or “a nice(boy‟s car)”.c).Adj.+ N + N Example: foreign language teacher The possible structures are “(foreign language)teacher” or “foreign(language teacher)”.d).N1 and N2 or N3 Example: John and Sam or Tom The possible structures are “(John and Sam)or Tom” or „‟John and(Sam or Tom)”.e).V + N1 + Prep.+ N2 Example: see a boy with a telescope The ambiguous item is the PP attachment “with a telescope”.It can attach to “see” or “a boy”.In the first case, it means “use a telescope to see a boy”.And the latter case means “see a boy who has a telescope”.f).N1 of N2
Example: the love of God This phrase has two meanings: “someone‟s love to God” or “God‟s love to someone”.g).N + N + N +… Example1: girl hunter
This phrase is rather special for structural ambiguity.It has only one structure, but it has two possible meanings because it is not easy to decide the role of “girl”.This phrase might mean “a girl who is a hunter” or “a hunter who hunts girl”.This is not lexical ambiguity, but a kind of recessive structural ambiguity caused by the special function of certain phrase structure.Pragmatic ambiguity
Pragmatic ambiguity denotes that the language expresses different purpose or meaning in the
毕业设计（论文）
real application(邱述德 英语歧义 1998).Quite a few people like using ambiguous and indirect sentences to describe connotation deliberately.5.1 Pragmatic ambiguity caused by implication(1)A: What do you want to do this afternoon? B: I have a terrible backache.The answer of B is to express the fact that he has a terrible backache.However, as a matter of fact, his intention is that he wants to let A know he will not do anything at all this afternoon.(2)A: Synden is the capital of Australia, isn‟t it, teacher? B: And New York is China, I suppose.The answer of B is out of association of with the question of A.But in fact this way is “the wrong answer versus the wrong sentence” to describe the conclusion of A is very absurd.5.2 Pragmatic ambiguity caused by transcultural background(1)The Englishmen translate “a flat tyre” into “a tyre without enough air inside” while the Americans into “a very foolish man”.Another example we may use to illustrate this point goes like this: A British girl toured around America and guided by an American girl.They conversed with each other after a whole day of tour.Br: Let me have a rest.I am already knocked up.Am: My heartiest congratulation!Br: Why do you say that? Am: Why shouldn‟t I?
The phrase “knock up” means “pregnant” in America, but “very tired” in Britain.So, the British girl is baffled when she hears the American girl‟s “My heartiest congratulation”.(2)A: Do people often die in this village?
B: No, they only die once.A: Do a lot of people die in this village?
B: Yes, all of them do.“people often die” can be understood into “the matter which people die often happen” or “people die more than one time”, and “ a lot of people die” into “many people die” or “the matter which people die often happen”.B makes an “honest” comprehension of A‟s remarks, which result from the difference between subjective culture and objective one.(3)Once there was a factory in which “horizontal store refrigerator” were produced.On the model-label of refrigerators, “W.C”---the abbreviation of the Chinese phonetic alphabet of “卧藏”.“W.C” is just the same as the abbreviation of the word “water-closet” in English.This caused too much misunderstanding.To sum up, pragmatic ambiguity is a phenomenon that cannot be avoided in the use of language.It can cause misunderstanding and even anger between the people.Therefore, in the
毕业设计（论文）
conversation, we should listen carefully to know the speaker‟s intention.Besides, when we talk with a foreigner, we should understand the culture of his country before.However, if pragmatic ambiguity used properly, we can enhance the effect of expression.Conclusion
So far, the four basic types of ambiguity, the phonetic, lexical, structural and pragmatic, have been discussed and dealt with separately；but it should be pointed out that in authentic language, they do not always appear separately, instead they might mingle together and reside in one sentence at the same time.This really requires much attention.From all the analyses made in this thesis, a fact shows itself that apart from the linguistic reasons, i.e.the phonetic, lexical structural and pragmatic ones that bring about ambiguity, another important factor which, to a great extent, is responsible for the lack of context.Most of the examples cited in the thesis will become disambiguated when they are placed in the context in which they are used, because context dependence is a universal feature of human languages.Context plays a vital role in the determination of word meaning and sentence meaning.Based on this fact, it necessarily follows that a successful communication requires not only a sufficient knowledge in linguistics, say, phonetics, lexicology, syntax and pragmatics which makes it possible to recognize the four major types of ambiguity that may arise at any time in using the language, but also that close attention should be paid to the context, which can serve as the only available means to remove the potential ambiguities.In short, to cope with the subtle language, one should not only be armed with sufficient knowledge in linguistics, but also should be attentive and observant enough to the context, the most important factor which plays a vital role ill the determination of word meaning or sentence meaning.The knowledge in linguistics can help to recognize potential ambiguities while a keen awareness of the context can help to remove them.The combination of the two is sure to lead to a good understanding and a rich appreciation of the language.毕业设计（论文）
References
1． 戴炜栋
简明英语语言学教程
上海外语教育出版社
1989 2． 邱述德
英语歧义
商务印书馆
1998 3． 赵元任 汉语中的歧义现象[A].吴宗济,赵新那.赵元任语言学论文集[C].北京：商务印书馆，2002 4.孙英华.英语结构歧义现象的分析[A].李光立,何福胜.研究生英语教学研究论文集[C].北京：中国人民大学出版社，1998 5.程工.从对歧义句的分析看20世纪的句法学[J].解放军外语学院学报.1998 6.冯志伟.论奇异结构的潜在性[Z].Internet.8 May, 2004.Available: http://162.105.203.93/research/papers/chinese/collection-2/ambig2.htm 7．Liliance Haegeman and Jacqueline Gueron.The New Comparative Syntax [A].In Reading of Linguistic[C].eds.杨达复，谭志明.西北工业大学出版社，2003.201~208 8.陈思敏.试用X-标阶理论来消解歧义[J].外语与外语教学.1999,(3).53~55 9.秦洪林、贾德霖.英语歧义研究，江苏教育出版社 1991年 10.伍谦光.语义学导论，湖南教育出版 1987年 11.沈家煊.英语中歧义类型，《现代外语》, 1985年第1期
毕业设计（论文）
Acknowledgement
My deep gratitude first goes to Wang Huamin, my supervisor, who has given me a lot of enlightening instructions and guided me through the various stages of writing this thesis.Without his guidance and valuable suggestions, the completion of the present thesis would not have been possible.Besides, her learnedness, kindness and readiness to help students are well acclaimed among all the students.Special thanks also go to Professor Jiang Xiping, from whose illuminating lectures I have benefited a lot.She has kindly provided me with the materials I need, taken pains to read my papers and given me some valuable advice.I really appreciate her unreserved help and will keep it in my mind for ever.Sincere thanks goes as well to Professor Liu Shifa whose profundity, eloquence and integrity have made a strong impression on me and whose care and encouragement are of great importance to me.Besides, I would like to thank all the other teachers for their great lectures and all the students who have given me a lot of help and have made the completion of this thesis possible and made my study in university easier, more convenient and more enjoyable for me.Finally, I want to thank my family for their everlasting understanding and support to my study.
第四篇：英语交际能力与英语口语教学
英语交际能力与英语口语教学
在英语口语教学中培养学生的英语交际能力这一问题进行一些探讨英语专业的教学目的是培养学生实际运用英语的能力。英语口语课的教学任务是培养学生口头表达和交际 的能力。如何搞好英语口语教学，培养学生的英语交际能力是实现英语专业教学目的的关键。
一、英语交际能力
1．1英语交际能力的含义
“交际能力”这一概念最初是由美国社会语言学家Dwell Hymes 提出的。他认为，交际能力不仅包括对一 种语言的语言形式的理解和掌握，而且还包括对在何时何地、以什么方式对谁恰当使用语言形式进行交际的知 识体系的理解和掌握。交际能力是一个复杂的概念，涉及到语言、修辞、社会、文化、心理等多种因素，包括 一个人运用语言手段（口头语或书面语）和副语言手段（身势语）来达到某一特定交际目的的能力。而语言学 家Littlewood则将交际能力概括成4点： 掌握语言知识，并能运用语言清楚地表达思想；不仅掌握语言知识，还了解这些语言知识在交际中的作用，学习者在使用语言时应考虑自己的社会地位及社会语境并能从听者的反 应中判断出所用语言是否恰当；学习者必须了解语言的社会含义，能使用英语本族人普遍接受的语言。从以上 4 点可以看出交际能力主要指的是达意（能够用目的语将所指的意义表达清楚）及得体（什么人在什么场合下 说什么话）。英语口语教学应该围绕交际能力包含的几方面的内容，着重培养学生运用英语
进行口头交际的能 力。
1。2培养交际能力是外语教学的主要目的我们进行语言教学的根本目的是什么？是学习、研究语言本身，还是掌握语言这个工具？大家知道，语言具有社会交际功能，是一种交际工具。我们外语教学的目的是要在打好扎实的语言基础知识，进行认真严格的听、说、读、写训练的基础上，培养听、说、读、写的交际能力。这一教学目的被明确写进了国家教委颁布的英语教学大纲。
几十年来，我国的外语教学走过不少弯路。解放以后很长一段时间，由于种种原因，我国的外语教学只是偏重语言形式（语音、语法、词义）的讲解传授，培养出不少的学生，他们精通语法规则，却只会认读，不会听说，不能真正具备交际能力。改革开放以后，国外先进的语言教学理论与教学手段得以引进，我国的外语教学水平提高得很快，尤其是明确提出了外语教学的主要目的是培养学生的交际能力，其意义是十分重大的。
二．英语交际能力与英语交际文化
2．1交际能力与交际文化的提出
那么什么是交际能力？它的内涵是什么呢？交际能力是一个语言学术语，它是针对语言能力而言的。语言能力通常是指语言规则内在化的体系，即语音、词汇、语法等语言规则体系；而交际能力的概念不仅包括语言能力，还包括语言运用，说通俗一点就是能否恰当地使用语言的能力。看来要完成某一门语言的交际能力的培养，就不可避免地要对使用这种语言的国家的文化进行了解与学习，因为语言与文化是密不可分的。
文化是一个涵义极广的概念。《辞海》里对文化是这样定义的：从广义上说，文化是指人类社会历史实践过程中所创造的物质财富与精神财富的总和。但为便于区分，人们习惯上将文化分为两类，把社会、政治、经济、文学、艺术、历史、哲学、科技成就等称为知识文化；把社会习俗、生活习惯、思维方式及行为准则等称为交际文化或常识文化。本文着重探讨的是交际文化。
当然，人类文化中有着许许多多共性的东西。但也不可否认，不同的民族、不同的文化之间也存在着差异，尤其是在交际文化方面，东西方之间存在着较大的差异，这给我们学习与正确使用英语带来一定的困难。有时对同一个词汇，对同一个称呼，对同一个手势，对同一句话，英美人的理解与中国人的理解就大不一样。所以我们的英语教学，几乎是从第一天起就开始接触东西方两种交际文化差异这个难题。
三、英语口语教学中培养学生交际能力的途径
3。1加强听力训练，增加语言输入与储备
《高等学校英语专业基础阶段英语教学大纲》要求加强培养及训练学生语言知识的转换能力，其主旨是让 学生通过读和听获得知识、信息和语言，经过思维，在原有知识及语言的基础上对所获得的内容和语言加工和 重组，并赋予新的内容，然后输出，从而完成交际的全过程。由此看出，语言输入是语言输出和完成交际的必 备条件。“听”是语言、知识、信息获取的重要手段，也是学习开口说话的第一步。大量的听力练习是学生获 得语感以及学会正确表达自己思维的基本途径。
美国心理语言学家Wilga M.Rivers认为，听的过程不仅是一个接收的过程而且还是一个建立的过程。听的 理解过程分为3 个阶段：第一阶段被称为感觉阶段。在这个阶段，学习者得到的仅仅是一个肤浅的印象，能初 略地识别，能根据自己所有的学习第一语言的经验对所听的材料进行初步地切分音段，这基本上是一个被动和 接收的阶段。第二阶段被称为识别阶段，它是一个通过切分音段和组织音段来识别的阶段。学习者把所接收的 信号一个一个地加以识别，把已经识别的与正在识别的联系起来。这个识别过程是积极的、细致的。第三阶段 为领悟和建立阶段。学习者通过认知系统重复一遍所听的材料，而且不时地把已经理解的东西与听到的加以对 照和修正。学习者通过重新理解使所听材料成为一种比较容易保留的形式被存入记忆里。这样，理解了的材料 得到了改变，被保留下来的是语义信息。有了语义信息，人们再寻求表达形式。从听的理解过程，我们可以得 出结论：学习者学说英语必须从听开始，先听别人说，反复多听几次，知道怎样说，以及在什么情况下说什么 时，便会产生强烈的想说话的愿望。开口说话，表达思想，进行语言交际便成了大量听的必然结果。学习者由 于听的深度与广度不同，口头交际能力差异很大。那些听得多、理解得多、范围又广的学习者，口头交际能力 就强，而那些听得少，理解不透彻的学习者，在表达时，就会感到无话可说，或者不知如何说，口头交际能力 就无从谈起。3。2培养用英语思维的习惯，加强英语思维能力训练
英语口语教学致力于培养学生的口头交际能力，教师应该帮助学生养成良好的口头交际的习惯，做到语言 清晰、流畅、达意。那么，如何才能做到这一点呢？培养学生用英语思维的习惯，加强以习得为主要形式的英 语思维能力训练是培养学生用英语表达思想的能力的重要手段和途径。用英语思维是指排除本族语或本族语的 干扰，用英语直接理解、判断和表达的能力。没有经过英语思维能力训练的人，大都是把听的东西译成自己的 母语后再储存在记忆里。在表达前，再把语义信息，即他想说的，在脑子里下意识地寻求母语的表达式，然后 再把它译成英语。这种做法不可避免地会导致母语的干扰。这样借助于母语表达出来的东西是不可能地道的，大都是Chinglish（中式英语）。比如，让别人先进门或先上车时，一些英语学习者根据汉语表达习惯常说成 ：You gofirst，或Go first，please。而地道的英语表达是：After you。再比如，中国人与朋友道别时，经 常说“走好”、“慢走”、“慢点儿骑（自行车）”之类的客套语。一些喜欢用母语思维的英语学习者不了解 英美人士常常微微一笑并作个表示再见的手势，他们会习惯地说成：Goslowly，walk slowly或Ride slowly。这些说法听起来很不自然。运用这种方式与人交际经常会导致交际出现障碍甚至
失败。在英语口语教学中应 该让学生听地道的英语，培养他们边听边直接用英语把听到而且理解了的东西储存在记忆里的习惯，以及培养 他们克服母语干扰，直接用英语表达的良好习惯。学生通过一系列主动、积极的思维活动，理解和表达思想，接受和输出信息。正是在这种积极的思维和表达过程中，学生才能获得真正的英语口头交际能力。
3。3采用分级教学
英语口语教学应该遵循由易到难，循序渐进的原则。此原则体现在口语的具体教学实践中就是采用分级教 学。
3．3．1初级阶段教学
第一级为初级阶段。在此阶段，教师首先应该为学生创造一个有利于习得语言的环境，让学生尽可能地多 接触与运用对象语。教学内容要具体，不要太抽象，最好是采用与日常生活相关的小故事与对话的内容，使学 生有亲临其境的感觉，同时又能熟悉外国人日常生活方式及应答方式。这些内容可包括饮食起居、节假日、舞 会、晚会、作客、信件、电影、电视、求医、求学、购物、旅游等。除此之外，在初级阶段的学习中，学生还 应该学习和掌握一些英语最基本的句型和习语、惯用语，要能熟练到脱口而出的程度。背诵在语言学习中，特 别是初级阶段，起着非常重要的作用。掌握一些公式化的套语、记住许多现成的口头话语，对能编制出创造性 的言语、弥补第二语言规则的不足以及摆脱交际困境都是必要的。
3．3．2中级阶段教学
第二级为中级阶段。此阶段的训练目标主要是培养学生连贯说话的能力。教学内容可包括爱情友谊、生儿 育女、公共道德、人际关系、个性特点、生活习惯、趣味爱好、生活经历、体育运动、勤工俭家、学习方法、健康减肥、犯罪案例等。教学方式可采取复述短文、概述大意、描述图画、回答问题、观点讨论、角色扮演，把故事编成对话，把对话编成故事等。
3．3．3高级阶段教学
第三级为高级阶段，亦可称为创造性阶段。通过初级、中级阶段的学习，学生已有了用英语进行口头交际 的强烈欲望，掌握了基本的英语口头交际的技巧，又具备了连贯说话的能力，这就为学生自由运用语言以及创 造性使用语言打下了基础。高级阶段的教学内容可扩展到对各种问题及现象的讨论与辩论，比如孩子的教育、青年人的思想情绪、妇女的社会地位、老年人问题、种族歧视、广告的优劣、电视中的暴力、代沟问题、浪费 问题、人口问题、环境污染问题、住房问题、对老板的态度、工作的意义、对钱的态度、对时间的看法等等，教学方式主要采用辩论、演讲、小组讨论、总结发言等。通过这3个阶段的学习，学生就能逐渐地做到运用英 语清楚地自由地表达自己的思想感情、意志以及观点了，也就具备了比较强的英语口头交际能力。
五。充实社会文化知识，增强语言得体性意识，提高口头交际能力
英语学习者在与英语本族人进行实际交往中，很容易将自己的母语使用习惯带入跨文化交际，从而引起误 会，导致交流出现障碍甚至失败。比如，中国人
常问：“你吃了没有？”“去哪？”“你每月挣多少钱？”“ 你结婚了吗？”等问题，译成英语为：“Have you eaten yet？”“Where are you going？”“How much do you earn each month？”“Are you married or single？”“How old are you？”英语本族人听到这些问 话会很不高兴，觉得对方不懂礼貌，干预他的私事，他的反应很可能是：It's none of your business！（你 管得着吗！）再比如，中国人受到别人表扬或赞美时，会习惯地表示谦虚，往往回答：“哪里，哪里。”或是 “不，不。”译成英语是“No，No。”英语本族人听了却感到纳闷：我赞美他，他不但不领情表示感谢，反而 认为我赞美错了。中国人听到对方对自己表示感谢时，常回答道：“这是我应该做的。”直译成英语是“It's my duty”，英语本族人听了会想：原来他并不想做这件事，但这是他的职责，所以不得不做，这与汉语所要 表达的原意有很大出入。这种由于母语文化因素的干扰，而说出不得体的英语的现象非常普遍。
语言交流所涉及的不仅仅是一系列的语法规则及词条，而且还涉及到语言使用的社会文化及风俗习惯。一 句完全符合语法规则的话，用在不恰当的场合，说得不合说话人的身份，或者违反当时的社会风俗习惯，就达 不到交际的目的，有时甚至造成意想不到的后果。所以，培养学生的交际能力除了培养他们能用目的语清楚地 表达思想以外（达意），还要有计划、有步骤地介绍和传授有关英语国家的文化背景知识，使学生学会得体地 交际，懂得什么时候什么地方以什么方式对什么人讲些什么话（得体）。
在英语口语教学中，应该适度地、有 选择地、比较系统地将目的语的文化知识的传授融入教学中，使英语口语教学与文化教学相结合。具体地说，在口语教学的初、中级阶段，着重交际文化的导入（直接影响信息准确传递的语言和非语言的文化因素），内 容包括介绍在日常生活交往方面英汉主流文化的差异，以及在语言形式和运用中的具体表现，打招呼和告别、各种称呼、祝贺和赞扬以及其他社交礼节等的差异介绍属于此类。比如我们常听到许多讲英语的孩子直呼其教 师、父母或祖父母的名字，我们会认为他们不懂礼貌，长幼不分，而他们的教师及长辈却不认为这是不尊重人 或过于随便。介绍由于文化差异引起的英汉词语、成语、谚语和格言的意义及运用方面的差异，介绍英汉语言 在比喻和联想运用上的差异以及英汉语言中典故、委婉语和禁忌语运用方面的差异等。学生通过这些差异的学习，就能理解各种英语表达法所涉及的文化内涵。比如谚语方面，尽管中国人和讲英语的人文化背景不同，但 在英语和汉语中相同或相似的谚语却很多。
六．
在口语教学的高级阶段则着重导入知识文化（不直接影响准确传递信息的语言和非语言的文化因素），从 中西文化差异的深层入手，介绍中西方思维方式、价值观念、认知行为、交际关系以及言语表达方式等方面的 差异。英美人士比较注重定量分析，进行逻辑推理，而中国人比较注重直觉与先验理性。善于以经验为依据来 分析、判断和解决问题。思维方式的差异使人们对同一事物产生不同看法，彼此交流时就容易产生误解，如认 知行为方面，在西方国家，直言不讳、各抒己见受到普遍尊重，人们对那些模棱两可、含糊其辞的说法非常反 感。而大部分中国人则讲究含蓄、委婉，一般不愿意直接提出与对方、特别是上级或长辈不一致的观点，非常 担心会使对方难堪，或担心会损坏双方关系对自己不
利。学生通过中西文化此类差异的学习，就增强了文化差 异意识，了解了西方的人际关系及交往的深层次模式，从而学会得体地进行交际。刘海量、于万锁《交际能力与口语教学》，《外语与外语教学》，1998年第8期。鲍志坤《也论外语教学中的文化导入》，《外语界》，1997 年第1期。3 邹红英《大学英语四级后口语教学初探》，《外语界》，1996年第3期。吴祯福等《英语口语教程：2英语中级口语》，外语教学与研究出版社，1995年6月版。邓炎昌、刘润清Language and Culture 语言与文化——英汉语言文化对比，外语教学与研究出版，19 94年4月版。
第五篇：校报投稿文章----英语歧义
英语歧异现象解析
外语系 陈媛媛
歧义是一种奇特的语言现象，它存在于各种语言中，是语言结构形式与其意义之间的特殊关系。从产生渠道看，可将其分为蓄意歧异和无意歧异，前者是为了达到某种效果故意而为之，后者则完全是语言交流中无意产生的。从语言本身探究，则可划出三大类，语音歧异，词汇歧异，语法歧异。对于商务英语专业的学生，交际教学占到了相当大的比重，跟踪歧异的触发，显露，消除，和利用的全过程会帮助学生理解语言是一个多层面，多因素相互协调相互制约的对立统一体。
1． 语音歧异
1）同音异形异义词
在给学生讲时间的表达方法时，常以two to two(1:58)为例，初次听到时常理解为two two two 的连读。再如sea（海洋）与see（看见），meet（遇见）与meat（肉）等等不胜枚举。
2）同音同形异义词
例如英语中的一句饶口令，I saw a saw saw a saw.第一个saw是动词see的过去式，第二个和最后一个saw是名词“锯子”，第三个是动词“锯”故该句应翻译为“我看见一把锯子在锯另一把锯子。”
2． 词汇歧异
词汇歧异是由于对某一个词有不同的理解而产生的歧义。例如，Mike saw the light.本句译为迈克看见了那盏灯，也可以译为迈克明白了。再如，He turned out a thief.可理解成完全相反的意思，他原来是个小偷，或他赶走了一个小偷，而产生歧异的核心就是对词组turn out的理解。
３．语法歧异
语法歧异即为结构歧异，表现在相同的表层结构可能有两个或两个以上的深层结构，因而有不同的解释。英语语法的功能具有多样性，在一个句子中同一个词可能具有不同的功能。例如：Our company demands change.当句中的demands理解为动词时句子可翻译成“我们的公司要求改变”当demands理解成名词时，整句就变成了“我们公司的要求（或需求）改变了。”另外英文中的否定句也易产生歧异，如：I didn’t go to school because I hated to study English.这句话若理解为部分否定则译为“我没有去学校因为我讨厌学英语”，若理解为完全否定则译为“我不是因为讨厌英语才没有去上学的。”语法结构常见的歧异有以下几种情况：
(1)省略结构引起的歧义。如:I like my mother as well as my father.:I like my mother as well as my faiher doesI like my mother and I like my father too.(2)句子中某个词所修饰的词的不同而引起的歧义。如:Mary told me yesterday she had been to the museun.本句即可以理解为“昨天，玛莉告诉我她去了博物馆。”又可以理解为“玛莉告诉我她是昨天去了博物馆。”又如:I saw her in the library我在图阵馆看见了她。（介词短语做状语)或理解为:我看见她在图书馆。（介词短语做宾语补足语）
(3)否定词引起的歧义。英语中的很多否定句都是有歧义的。在阅读时只能通过上下文来得出正确的结论，排除歧义。一般说来，从语法上看，not与谓语动词连接时，是否定谓语动词的，no与名词连接时，是否定名词的。但是，从否定的重心来看，却并不如此。另外，不定代词中的every，a1l, both以及副词quite always等，与否定词结合时，不是全部否定
而是部分否定，即:不是“全不是”，而是“不全是”。通常，如果谓语动词是否定的，而后而又接上一个状语.很容易引起歧义。如;He didn’t sing to p lease h is girl friend.显然，这句话有两种意思:他并不是为了使女朋友高兴才去唱歌的。或，为了使女朋友高兴他去唱歌。
(5)动词不定式短语引起的歧义。英语中有些动词既可以作及物动词又可以作不及物动词。其主动形式往往有被动的意义，这种情况下通常会产生歧义。如:The tiger is too smal1 to k i l1该句有两种理解:The tiger is too small to kill others和The tiger is too small for others to kill.综上可知，学生只有对英语表达中的歧异有正确而深入的认知，才能做到尽可能避免，甚至特殊场景下，充分利用，达到一语双关的目的。
点击咨询 