第一篇:【英语论文】英语中的歧义现象An Analysis on Ambiguity in English
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An Analysis on Ambiguity in English1
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Abstract
Ambiguity is omnipresent in languages.There have been a lot of researches about ambiguity in the past.This paper makes a comprehensive analysis on the ambiguous structures in English and classifies categories of them based on the different causes: phonological ambiguity, lexical ambiguity, structural(grammatical)ambiguity and pragmatic ambiguity.The phenomenon of ambiguity, whenever and wherever it occurs, may directly lead to the comprehension of expression and communication.Phonetic ambiguity, that is, a word or a phrase sounds which has at least two meanings, which occurs only in spoken English but not in written English.Lexical ambiguity might cause much more complicated problems in the understanding of the language, for it exists not only in spoken form but also in written language.Its existence is attributed to certain ambiguous lexical items, namely to polysemous and homonymous words.In written language, the most important ambiguity phenomenon lies in structure.Structural ambiguity is also called grammatical ambiguity, which means “ambiguity caused by the varied interrelationships between words in a sentence.Even though none word is ambiguous, structurally it still generates ambiguity”.Structural ambiguity is often caused by the linear order of words in a sentence.It often takes place in spoken languages as well as in common phonetic materials.Pragmatic ambiguity denotes that the language expresses different purposes or meanings in the real application.Ambiguity analysis can help improve the ability in language understanding and language application.Key Words: phonological ambiguity, lexical ambiguity, structural ambiguity, pragmatic ambiguity
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摘要
歧义现象在语言中无所不在,在过去已有许多相关的研究。这篇论文将对英语中所存在的歧义现象做一个全面的分析。根据不同的原因,英语歧义现象总体来说可分为四大类:语音歧义,词汇歧义,结构歧义(语法歧义)和语用歧义。不论在任何时间任何地点出现歧义现象,都会对人们的理解和交流造成很大的困难。语音歧义是说一个单词或一个词组听起来至少有两个意思,这种现象只会出现在口语中。词汇歧义是指由于一词多意或同形异义的原因给人们的理解造成了许多困难。这种现象可存在于口语和书面语中。在书面语中,最重要的歧义是结构歧义,也叫语法歧义,它是由词与词之间不同的关系所造成的。即使一个句子中所有的单词都没有歧义,句子的结构也会造成歧义。语用歧义是指说话人在特定的语境中或上下文中使用不确定的或模糊的或间接的话语向听话人同时表达数种言外行为或言外之意。
关键词:语音歧义,词汇歧义,结构歧义,语用歧义
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Contents Introduction………… ……………………………………………………6 1.1 Definition of Ambiguity in English....................................................................6 1.2 Importance of the Present Study……………………………………………….6 Phonetic Ambiguity……………………………………………………….6 2.1 Phonetic ambiguity caused by homophones……………………………………7 2.2 Phonetic ambiguity caused by phrases…………………………………………7 2.3 Phonetic ambiguity caused by different breath groups and different intonation.7 2.4 Phonetic ambiguity caused by stress…………………………………………...7 Lexical Ambiguity………………………………………………………...8
3.1 Lexical Ambiguity caused by homonym………………………………………8 3.2 Lexical Ambiguity caused by polysemy……………………………………….9 Structural ambiguity…………………………………………………….10
4.1 Sententially structural ambiguity…………………………………………......10 4.2 Phrasally structural ambiguity………………………………………………...12 Pragmatic ambiguity…………………………………………………….13
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5.1 Pragmatic ambiguity caused by implication……………………………13 5.2 Pragmatic ambiguity caused by transcultural background………………..14 Conclusion………………………………………………………….15
毕业设计(论文)Introduction
1.1 Definition of Ambiguity in English Ambiguity, as is defined in the Webster‟s Third International Dictionary(许素波,Types of Ambiguity in English,1999-04), is “the condition of admitting of two or more meanings, of being understood in more than one way, or of referring to two or more things at the same time.” In ordinary books on linguistics, it is generally defined roughly as linguistic phenomenon that a word phrase or clause can have more than one interpretation.Ambiguity, as a pervasive feature of the English language, existing in both spoken and written forms, and occurs for a variety of reasons, such as the phonetic reason that in connected speech, two or more different strings of lexical items happen to take on the same phonological form as a result of sound liaison, the lexical reason, for instance, ambiguity can be given rise to owing to the homonymy and polysemy of the vocabulary, and the structural reason, namely ambiguity can also be attributed to different grammatical analysis of a phrase or clause.Ambiguity can exist in both spoken and written forms of English and arise through a variety of ways.From a purely linguistic point of view, however, ambiguity can be accounted for by mainly four factors: the phonetic, the lexical, the structural, and the pragmatic, hence four types of ambiguity occur: phonetic ambiguity, lexical ambiguity, structural ambiguity, and pragmatic ambiguity.1.2 Importance of the Present Study Through the present study of ambiguity, we can avoid misunderstanding caused by ambiguity effectively.Meanwhile, this can also help the learners improve their understanding and translation of English.Besides, by doing so, language users can get the effect of rhetorical speech of pun in order to enrich the language and make the language more humorous.What‟s more, the study of ambiguity in English may also help to confirm some universal features of language and university of people‟s thinking and may reveal some cultural differences.In short, the present study of ambiguity in English can arouse many people‟s interest and will help people to attain a better understanding of how language works in people‟s mind.During our time of learning English, we should attach more importance to it.Phonetic Ambiguity
Phonetic ambiguity, that is, a word or a phrase sounds that it has at least two meanings, occurs only in spoken English but not in written English(邱述德 英语歧义 1998).6
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2.1 Phonetic ambiguity caused by homophones Homophone means that a word that is pronounced like another word but has a different spelling or meaning(张韵斐 现代英语词汇学概论 2004).The examples analyzed below are several pairs of words which have the same sound but different meanings.If they appear in the spoken language, you will have difficulty in telling them apart.(1)a: He is sowing now.b: He is sewing now.sow and sew have the same pronunciation, however, sow in sentence a means “to plant or scatter seeds”, and sew in sentence b means “to join pieces of cloth together using a needle and thread”.(2)a: Throw the flower away.b: Throw the flower away.flower and flour are a pair of homophones, flower: noun, the part of a plant, often beautiful and colored, that produces seeds or fruit, flour: noun, power made from wheat and used for making bread or cakes.In spoken language, it is difficult for you to tell flower and flour apart.(3)a: He is flying to Oakland.b: He is flying to Oakland.Oakland in sentence a is a city of State California, but Oakland in sentence b is a city of New Zealand.They are a pair of homophones.(4)“When does the baker follow his trade?” “Whenever he kneads the dough.”
This example uses “need” and “ knead” which are a pair of homophones and added the polysemous word” dough”(In slang, this word means money),which makes it difficult for us to know that whether the baker begins his business when he needs the money or the baker begins his business when he rubs the dough.2.2 Phonetic ambiguity caused by phrases Phrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain the following elements: head, specifier and complement(The word around which a phrase is formed is termed head.The word on the left side of the heads are said to function as specifier.The words on the right side of the heads are complement)(戴炜栋 简明英语语言学教程 1989).If the end of one word is a consonant sound while the next begins with a vowel, the consonant sounds naturally to be the part of the next word.This phonetic rule, as everybody knows, is called sound-linking or sound liaison.This phenomenon as often as not cause ambiguity, for example, a bee feeder / a beef eater
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The two phrases sound similarly, however, the meaning of the former is absolutely different from the latter.The former means that a man who feeds bee, while the latter means that a man who eats beef.There are a lot of similar examples: a trained deer/ a train dear;a name / an aim;a nice girl / an ice girl;an ear-phone / a near phone.2.3 Phonetic ambiguity caused by different breath groups and different intonation(1)A range of sounds of some words which constitute a sentence pronounce together without stop called breath group(邱述德 英语歧义 1998).“Peter is a short story writer”
This sentence has two meanings because of different breath groups.One is that Peter is a story writer who is short(Peter is / a short / story writer), the other is that Peter is a writer who is good at writing short stories(Peter is / a short story / writer).(2)The rise and the fall of the voice in speaking, especially as this affects the meaning of what is said called intonation.“I beg your pardon”.If this sentence is said with a rising tone, it means “please say it again”.If it is said with a falling tone, it means “I am sorry, please forgive me”.2.4 Phonetic ambiguity caused by stress Stress means that a term used in semantic analysis to refer to a lexical item which has a range of different meanings(戴炜栋 简明英语语言学教程 1989).The peasant grows a lot of fruit.They eat what they can, and can what they cannot.In this sentence, when the verb “can” is stressed, it means “to preserve food by putting it in a can”, the sentence means they eat the food which is putted in a can.When it is unstressed, it means “be able to”, used as a modal verb, the sentence means they eat what they are be able to eat the amount of the food.Phonetic ambiguity sometimes does cause misunderstanding to people, yet it could be got rid of if enough attention is paid to the context in which the utterance concerned is made, and to the phonetic features of the language in speech.Lexical Ambiguity
Compared with the phonetic ambiguity, lexical ambiguity might cause much more complicated problems in the understanding of the language, for it exists not only in spoken form but also in written language.Its existence is attributed to certain ambiguous lexical items, namely to polysemous and homonymous words which bound in the English vocabulary.毕业设计(论文)
3.1 Lexical Ambiguity caused by homonym In the English, there are many pairs of groups of words, which, though different in meaning, are pronounced alike, or spelled alike, or both, such words are called homonyms(张韵斐 现代英语词汇学概论 2004).(1)He took the lead yesterday.This is a very simple sentence both lexically and structurally, but it is ambiguous.Here the ambiguity resides in the homographic word “lead”.Pronounced either as [li:d],meaning “a leading role or part” or as [led] meaning “a kind of metal”.Thus the sentence may be interpreted to mean either that “He took a leading part(in a certain activity)yesterday” or that “He took away the lead(a kind of metal)yesterday”.(2)After operation, he could not bear children.Here the perfect homonym “bear” must necessarily function syntactically as a verb, but the sentence itself can not tell which of the meanings was intended by the speaker or writer.Does it mean “give birth to;produce” or “put up with;tolerate”? In this case, the context in which the sentence is uttered or used often serves to remove the potential ambiguity.(3)He likes China(china).In this sentence, “China” and “china” may be said to be a pair of homophonic words.“China” with the first letter capitalized, denotes “a country in Asia”, while “china” with the first letter in its small form, means “crockery”.It is necessary to say that this kind of ambiguity caused by homophones, only exists in spoken English.Spell out, and the homophonic word will become disambiguated immediately.3.2 Lexical Ambiguity caused by polysemy A term used in semantic analysis to refer to a lexical item which has a range of different meanings(张韵斐 现代英语词汇学概论 2004).(1)The food is not hot.The word “hot” can be translated into “having a high temperature” or “spicy”.(2)He refused to pay for the board.Here ambiguity obtains on account of the polysemous word “board”.The sentence can either be interpreted as “He refused to give money for his meals” or as “He refuses to pay money for the councilors” or even as “He refuses to pay money for the “table”, etc.in the absence of the context.(3)She is an English teacher.This nominal phrase “an English teacher” can be comprehended in “a teacher from England” or “a teacher who teaches English language”.From the above for examples, a conclusion may be drawn that some sentences obtain ambiguity in both written and spoken form, while some, which are ambiguous in written form,毕业设计(论文)
may be free from the ambiguity in speech or vice verse.It is a fact that most ambiguous sentences of this kind will become disambiguated when provided with the context, but in not few cases they may cause confusion, uncertainty and misunderstanding in the mind of the listener or reader.It is also arranged on the part of literary men for stylistic purpose to achieve a variety of stylistic effects such as humor, irony, emphasis and contrast, etc.For example, a very commonly-used and effective rhetorical device, are the results of making use of polysemous and homonymous words purposely so as to make the sentences ambiguous.Structural ambiguity
In written language materials, the most important ambiguity phenomenon lies in structure.Structural ambiguity is also called grammatical ambiguity, which means “ambiguity caused by the varied interrelationships between words in a sentence.Even though none word is ambiguous, structurally it might still generate ambiguity”(何冬兰 On English Structural Ambiguity 2006-06).Structural ambiguity is often caused by the linear order of words in a sentence.It often takes place in spoken languages as well as in common phonetic materials.Structural ambiguity can be divided into two types, one is sententially structural ambiguity;the other is phrasally structural ambiguity.4.1 Sentential structural ambiguity
This kind of ambiguity only exists within a certain kinds of sentences, which are specially structured.Unlike phrasal structural ambiguity, it could not be discussed without the context of sentences.4.1.1 Caused by the simplified forms of comparative structure In English, adverbial clause of comparative degree is often abridged.It is easy to cause ambiguity.We can sort it out and analyze it.Example 1: I know him better than you.It can be explained as “I know him better than you do” or as “I know him better than I know you.”
Example 2: Lily likes Harry as well as Joe.It can be understood as “Lily likes Harry as well as Joe does” or as “Lily likes Harry as well as she likes Joe”.4.1.2 Caused by negative word “not”
In a sentence, if the predicate is negative, and being attached by an adverbial modifier, it might generate ambiguity.Example 1: Jessica didn‟t prepare her lessons well yesterday.毕业设计(论文)
This sentence could be explained as three structures:(1)Yesterday, Jessica didn‟t prepare her lessons well.(She did something else.)(2)Yesterday, Jessica prepared her lessons, but not well enough.(3)Jessica prepared her lessons well, but not in yesterday.Example 2: He didn‟t go because he was afraid.And this sentence has two different structures:(1)He was afraid, so he didn‟t go.(2)He went, but not because he was afraid.In this sentence pattern, the negative word “not” in the main clause could either negate the main clause or the subordinate clause.Hence ambiguity takes place.4.1.3 Caused by adverbial or adverbial clause Example: Go straight forward and then turn left when you see a children‟s cinema.”
“When” introduces a time adverbial clause.It can modify “then turn left”, meaning “Go straight forward, you will see a children‟s cinema, and then turn left.” It can also modify the whole sentence, meaning “When you see a children‟s cinema, go straight forward and then turn left.”
4.1.4 Caused by fixed sentence patterns Example 1: It is good for him to do so.In this sentence pattern, ambiguity is caused by “for him”.It has two widely divergent meaning.(1)He is so kind that he does so.(2)What he does is good for him.Example 2: Eric is too good a man to kill.The verb after a verbal infinitive could be either active form or passive form.So the subject of the sentence could both be agent or victim.The two structures are:(1)Eric is too good a man for him to kill others.(2)Eric is too good a man for others to kill him.4.1.5 Caused by the simplified forms of parataxis Similar to the simplified forms of comparative structure, in a simplified form of parataxis, the latter compound clause is abridged, leaving only one or two constituents, which might be relevant to the subject or the object(or the object clause)in the front clause.Example 1: Lucy gave Monica a nickel and Mary a dime.Here “Mary a dime” is an ambiguous item.“Mary” could have the position as “Lucy”.Then it is the subject of the latter clause while the indirect object “Monica” is left out.Or it could have the position as “Monica”.Then it is the indirect object of the latter clause while the subject “Lucy” is left out.So the full structures for the two divergent meaning are:(1)Lucy gave Monica a nickel and Mary gave Monica a dime.(2)Lucy gave Monica a nickel and gave Mary a dime.毕业设计(论文)
The use of auxiliary verb is also one factor of causing such kind of ambiguity.Please look at the following example.Example 2: John thought Ivan went to Japan and Phillip did too.“Did” here would refer to either “thought” or “went”.And the two possible structures are:(1)John thought Ivan went to Japan and Phillip also thought Ivan went to Japan.(2)John thought Ivan went to Japan and he thought Phillip went to Japan too.4.1.6 Caused by some word’s special syntactic function
Some words in English, mainly conjunctions, adverbs and pronouns that introduce subordinate clause, have more than one syntactic function.Example: Go and ask the teacher by the window who is going to give you lessons in art.In this sentence, ambiguity is triggered by “ask”, which could be attached to with only a direct object, only an indirect object, or both of them.So the sentence could be explained as:(1)Go and ask the teacher by the window.He is going to give you lessons in art..(2)Go and ask the teacher by the window.He might know who is going to give you lessons in art.4.2 Phrasally structural ambiguity
It‟s common to find one central word with two or more than two modifiers.When being lack of limit of the choice or contextual clues, the relationship between the modifiers and the central word might be ambiguous.English grammar is flexible and changeable.So does the word‟s collocation.Hence the existence of structural ambiguity is inevitable.4.2.1 Caused by Shift of Parts of Speech Shifts of parts of speech have several situations, but basically because of the uncertainty of the word‟s part of speech.For example, “can fish”.This phrase might mean “be able to fish”.Or “put the fish into a can”.The cause of ambiguity in this sentence is the part of speech of the word “can”, which has two circumstances.“can” might be a model verb or a transitive verb.At the same time, the word “fish” might be an intransitive verb or a noun.This is only one common example;I would like to sum up the examples into certain ambiguous forms as following.a).N/V + V/N Example: ship sails It‟s hard to decide the part of speech of either “ship” or “sails”.There are two possibilities: “ship sails(N + V)” or “ship sails(V + N)”.The first structure means “a ship will sail”.And the second structure means “someone will ship the sails”.This kind of ambiguity item can be easily found in telegrams or newspapers.b).Adj./N + N Example: a Chinese teacher This phrase has two structures: “a Chinese teacher(Adj.+ N)” or “a Chinese teacher(N + N)”.The first structure means “a teacher who is Chinese”.And the second structure means “a teacher
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who teaches Chinese”.c).“V + N + V” or “V + Adj./ Pron./ Possession + N” Example: make her dress fast This phrase has two structures: “make her dress fast(V + N + V)” or “make her dress fast(V +Adj./ Pron./ Possession +N)”.The first structure means “tell her to dress herself quickly”.And the second structure means “have her dress made quickly”.4.2.2 Caused by Constituent Structure or Phrase Structure a).Adj.+ N + Conj.+ N
Example: ugly frog and tortoise
The possible structures are “(ugly frog)and tortoise” or “ugly(frog and tortoise)”.b).Adj.+ N‟s + N
Example: a nice boy‟s car
The possible structures are “(a nice boy)‟s car” or “a nice(boy‟s car)”.c).Adj.+ N + N Example: foreign language teacher The possible structures are “(foreign language)teacher” or “foreign(language teacher)”.d).N1 and N2 or N3 Example: John and Sam or Tom The possible structures are “(John and Sam)or Tom” or „‟John and(Sam or Tom)”.e).V + N1 + Prep.+ N2 Example: see a boy with a telescope The ambiguous item is the PP attachment “with a telescope”.It can attach to “see” or “a boy”.In the first case, it means “use a telescope to see a boy”.And the latter case means “see a boy who has a telescope”.f).N1 of N2
Example: the love of God This phrase has two meanings: “someone‟s love to God” or “God‟s love to someone”.g).N + N + N +… Example1: girl hunter
This phrase is rather special for structural ambiguity.It has only one structure, but it has two possible meanings because it is not easy to decide the role of “girl”.This phrase might mean “a girl who is a hunter” or “a hunter who hunts girl”.This is not lexical ambiguity, but a kind of recessive structural ambiguity caused by the special function of certain phrase structure.Pragmatic ambiguity
Pragmatic ambiguity denotes that the language expresses different purpose or meaning in the
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real application(邱述德 英语歧义 1998).Quite a few people like using ambiguous and indirect sentences to describe connotation deliberately.5.1 Pragmatic ambiguity caused by implication(1)A: What do you want to do this afternoon? B: I have a terrible backache.The answer of B is to express the fact that he has a terrible backache.However, as a matter of fact, his intention is that he wants to let A know he will not do anything at all this afternoon.(2)A: Synden is the capital of Australia, isn‟t it, teacher? B: And New York is China, I suppose.The answer of B is out of association of with the question of A.But in fact this way is “the wrong answer versus the wrong sentence” to describe the conclusion of A is very absurd.5.2 Pragmatic ambiguity caused by transcultural background(1)The Englishmen translate “a flat tyre” into “a tyre without enough air inside” while the Americans into “a very foolish man”.Another example we may use to illustrate this point goes like this: A British girl toured around America and guided by an American girl.They conversed with each other after a whole day of tour.Br: Let me have a rest.I am already knocked up.Am: My heartiest congratulation!Br: Why do you say that? Am: Why shouldn‟t I?
The phrase “knock up” means “pregnant” in America, but “very tired” in Britain.So, the British girl is baffled when she hears the American girl‟s “My heartiest congratulation”.(2)A: Do people often die in this village?
B: No, they only die once.A: Do a lot of people die in this village?
B: Yes, all of them do.“people often die” can be understood into “the matter which people die often happen” or “people die more than one time”, and “ a lot of people die” into “many people die” or “the matter which people die often happen”.B makes an “honest” comprehension of A‟s remarks, which result from the difference between subjective culture and objective one.(3)Once there was a factory in which “horizontal store refrigerator” were produced.On the model-label of refrigerators, “W.C”---the abbreviation of the Chinese phonetic alphabet of “卧藏”.“W.C” is just the same as the abbreviation of the word “water-closet” in English.This caused too much misunderstanding.To sum up, pragmatic ambiguity is a phenomenon that cannot be avoided in the use of language.It can cause misunderstanding and even anger between the people.Therefore, in the
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conversation, we should listen carefully to know the speaker‟s intention.Besides, when we talk with a foreigner, we should understand the culture of his country before.However, if pragmatic ambiguity used properly, we can enhance the effect of expression.Conclusion
So far, the four basic types of ambiguity, the phonetic, lexical, structural and pragmatic, have been discussed and dealt with separately;but it should be pointed out that in authentic language, they do not always appear separately, instead they might mingle together and reside in one sentence at the same time.This really requires much attention.From all the analyses made in this thesis, a fact shows itself that apart from the linguistic reasons, i.e.the phonetic, lexical structural and pragmatic ones that bring about ambiguity, another important factor which, to a great extent, is responsible for the lack of context.Most of the examples cited in the thesis will become disambiguated when they are placed in the context in which they are used, because context dependence is a universal feature of human languages.Context plays a vital role in the determination of word meaning and sentence meaning.Based on this fact, it necessarily follows that a successful communication requires not only a sufficient knowledge in linguistics, say, phonetics, lexicology, syntax and pragmatics which makes it possible to recognize the four major types of ambiguity that may arise at any time in using the language, but also that close attention should be paid to the context, which can serve as the only available means to remove the potential ambiguities.In short, to cope with the subtle language, one should not only be armed with sufficient knowledge in linguistics, but also should be attentive and observant enough to the context, the most important factor which plays a vital role ill the determination of word meaning or sentence meaning.The knowledge in linguistics can help to recognize potential ambiguities while a keen awareness of the context can help to remove them.The combination of the two is sure to lead to a good understanding and a rich appreciation of the language.毕业设计(论文)
References
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简明英语语言学教程
上海外语教育出版社
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1998 3. 赵元任 汉语中的歧义现象[A].吴宗济,赵新那.赵元任语言学论文集[C].北京:商务印书馆,2002 4.孙英华.英语结构歧义现象的分析[A].李光立,何福胜.研究生英语教学研究论文集[C].北京:中国人民大学出版社,1998 5.程工.从对歧义句的分析看20世纪的句法学[J].解放军外语学院学报.1998 6.冯志伟.论奇异结构的潜在性[Z].Internet.8 May, 2004.Available: http://162.105.203.93/research/papers/chinese/collection-2/ambig2.htm 7.Liliance Haegeman and Jacqueline Gueron.The New Comparative Syntax [A].In Reading of Linguistic[C].eds.杨达复,谭志明.西北工业大学出版社,2003.201~208 8.陈思敏.试用X-标阶理论来消解歧义[J].外语与外语教学.1999,(3).53~55 9.秦洪林、贾德霖.英语歧义研究,江苏教育出版社 1991年 10.伍谦光.语义学导论,湖南教育出版 1987年 11.沈家煊.英语中歧义类型,《现代外语》, 1985年第1期
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Acknowledgement
My deep gratitude first goes to Wang Huamin, my supervisor, who has given me a lot of enlightening instructions and guided me through the various stages of writing this thesis.Without his guidance and valuable suggestions, the completion of the present thesis would not have been possible.Besides, her learnedness, kindness and readiness to help students are well acclaimed among all the students.Special thanks also go to Professor Jiang Xiping, from whose illuminating lectures I have benefited a lot.She has kindly provided me with the materials I need, taken pains to read my papers and given me some valuable advice.I really appreciate her unreserved help and will keep it in my mind for ever.Sincere thanks goes as well to Professor Liu Shifa whose profundity, eloquence and integrity have made a strong impression on me and whose care and encouragement are of great importance to me.Besides, I would like to thank all the other teachers for their great lectures and all the students who have given me a lot of help and have made the completion of this thesis possible and made my study in university easier, more convenient and more enjoyable for me.Finally, I want to thank my family for their everlasting understanding and support to my study.
第二篇:英语歧义现象与英语交际教学论文
摘要:歧义是较为常见的复杂的语言现象,它是指一个语言项目具有两个或多于两个含义的现象,其 类型可分为语音歧义、词汇歧义和句法歧义等。歧义所导致的语言层面和语义内涵的差异令 学习者困惑,因而在交际活动中构成理解障碍,从语音、词汇和句法三方面了解歧义的起因和 构成,并把英语歧义理论研究与英语实际教学相结合,总结出有效的排除歧义的方法,有助于 学习者扫除语言交际中的障碍,正确理解言语交际的目的。
关键词:歧义;语音;词汇;句法;英语教学
语言是一种约定俗成的社会现象,而不是人们根据科学规律创造出来的。因此,语句和语义之 间没有一种必然的一一对应关系,往往不同的语句可以表达相同的思想,而同一语句却可以表 达不同的意义。大部分语言工作者普遍认为,如果语句在结构上遵循语法规则、语义上符合 逻辑常理,其深层包含两种或两种以上的释义,则会出现歧义(ambiguity)。英国语言学家Lee ch将歧义定义为“一个语言项目具有一个以上的认知意义”[1]。歧义现象在交际 过程中又分为无意歧义(unintentional ambiguity)和有意歧义(intentional ambiguity), 前者是由于语言使用者本身或语言结构自身的缺陷,而导致交流受阻的语言现象,是语言矛盾 的自然显露;后者是说话人对于语言结构矛盾的积极利用,它通过多种语言手段在语音、词汇、句法、语境等层次上反映出来,以达到特定的交际目的。
歧义的产生要具备语义、句法和语用三个条件,这三个条件是一个有机统一体,互相影响,互 相制约。语义上的多义性为歧义的产生奠定了基础,句法歧义则为歧义的产生提供了条件,而 语用则为语义和句法所引起的歧义提供了合理解释的多种可能性。本文主要从语音、词汇和 句法三个方面阐述英语无意歧义现象,并结合实际教学分析和总结排除歧义的方法。
一、英语教学中的歧义现象
1.语音歧义(phonetic Ambiguity)
语音歧义是在口语中由于同音异形异义词、同形同音异义词,以及由于连读、弱读、不同的 重音位置等,使听话人可能产生多种理解而造成的歧义。例如 I didn't make a [seil] l ast week,英语中的sail和sale的发音均为[seil],是一对同音异形异义词,于是此句可理 解为:“上周我没制作船帆”或“上周我没卖出去货物”。英语中有许多这样的词,如break(破坏)、brake(刹车),fair(公平的)、fare(费用),right(正确的)、write(写),die(死亡)、dye(染色),cell(细胞)、sell(卖)等。而fan(扇子/爱好者),long(长的/渴望),kind(善良的 /种类),mean(卑鄙的/意味)等属于同形同音异义词,它们在句子中极易造成理解上的歧义。
在说话过程中,连音造成相连的词或词组之间的音位切分的变化,也会产生歧义。如My broth er had a [greidei],此句中的[greidei] 既可以理解为“grade A”,也可以理解为“g ray day”。以上这两种歧义只在口语中存在,变成文字形式后,歧义便可消失。
此外,重读和弱读也会在语音层次上产生歧义。如 Why don't you have lunch with us可以理解为Why don't you come along and have lunch with us 或Why don't you havelunch with us rather than supper
2.词汇歧义(Lexical Ambiguity)
词汇歧义是指对句子中某一个词的意义有不同理解而产生的歧义,主要表现为一词多义和同 形异义两个方面。
(1)一词多义是指一个词有多种不同的意义,这些词之间常有某种内在的联系,在字典中归属 一个词条。如The boy broke the [ZZ(Z]glasses[ZZ)] last week(这个男孩上周打碎了[ZZ(Z]玻璃[ZZ)]/这个男孩上周打碎了[ZZ(Z]眼镜[ZZ)])。有些词组也存在多种意义,如He isrunning after her,这里的“running after”既可以理解为“追赶”,也可以理解为“追求 ”。
(2)同形异义词包括异音同形异义词和同音同形异义词,它们通常形式相同,却是含有两个或 两个以上意义完全不相关的词,在词典中一般被列入单独的词条。如bow(弓/鞠躬),lead(铅 /引导),tear(眼泪/撕开)等词就属于异音同形异义词。再如:Mary can't [ZZ(Z]bear[ZZ)]children(玛丽不能[ZZ(Z]忍受[ZZ)]孩子们/玛丽不能[ZZ(Z]生[ZZ)]孩子);She [ZZ(Z]turn ed out[ZZ)] an efficient secretary(她[ZZ(Z]赶走[ZZ)]了一个能干的秘书/她[ZZ(Z]原 来是[ZZ)]一个能干的秘书)。这里的“bear” 和“turn out”就是同音同形异义词(组)。
(3)词义的转移也会引发句子的歧义。这是因为许多词汇在已有的含义上又产生了新的意 义。如Many scientists and technicians are engaged in the recovery techniques,“r ecovery”原意指“复得、痊愈”,但随着现代技术的发展,“recovery”意指“人造卫星等 的回收”,“(废物利用的)提取”或“(击剑、划船等)预备姿势的还原”等。
3.句法歧义(Syntactic Ambiguity)
美国语言学家Roberts曾经指出:“这种因句法规则使用不当而引起的语法歧义是由于人们 忽视使用表明句子结构的句法代号而引起的”[2]。句法代号是指限定多义词用法 的词缀、单词或结构等,如用情态动词或一般过去时的后缀限定动词的词性,用定冠词限定 名词的词性等。句法歧义现象往往出现在一个可以理解为不同层次或可以变换的结构体中, 下面是几种常见的句法结构引起的歧义现象。
(1)平行结构引起的歧义:句子里的某一成分可以和平行结构中的任何一个结构连在一起 而具有不同的意义, 因而产生歧义。例如: The boy answered the question which histeacher asked [ZZ(Z]without hesitation[ZZ)](这个男孩毫不迟疑地回答老师问他的问题 /老师毫不犹豫地提问,这个男孩在作答)。
(2)省略结构引起的歧义:有时省略某些词会使句子产生歧义。例如: He knows more a bout literature than Mary(他比玛丽更懂文学/在文学和玛丽之间,他更了解文学)。
(3)状语和形容词界限不清引起的歧义。例如:The policeman punished the robber [ZZ(Z ]with a stick[ZZ)](警察用警棍惩罚这个盗贼/警察惩罚这个拿着棍子的盗贼)。
(4)介词和副词界限不清引起的歧义。例如:The doctor looked [ZZ(Z]over[ZZ)] my head(医生检查了我的头/医生从我的头顶看过去)。
二、在以交际为目的的实际教学中
如何排除歧义现象如前所述,歧义的出现是使用者措辞不当或语法结构及意义上的模棱两可,造成学习者在理 解上对特定语境条件下的话语意义和所指的范围产生不确定因素,这种不确定因素阻碍了言 语信息的有效传递,造成理解上的失误。我们从语音、词汇和句法等方面分析歧义产生的原 因,主要是通过对歧义现象的深刻认识,对它进行种种限制,最终达到消除歧义的目的。在 实际教学中,教师应该帮助学生建立英语语言“歧义”这一概念,让学生知晓在语音、词汇、句法结构和不同的语境中会产生歧义。然后,教师可以系统地从纷繁芜杂的歧义现象 中,总结出一些避免歧义、消解歧义和排除歧义的方法。以下笔者结合实际教学探讨如何应 对歧义,力求帮助学生扫除语言交际中的障碍,引导学生正确理解言语交际的意图。
1.语音手段
在语言交际中,语音、语调起着很重要的作用,不同的语调承载不同的信息,只有语音、语 调正确,才可以避免失误,消除歧义现象。教师可以有侧重点地给学生做专项练习,指导学 生使用正确的停顿、连续等方式,区别自己想要表达的重点,控制歧义现象的出现。例如, That's the cell phone you bought me,若重读“cell phone”,并用降调,则表示赞赏;如果把重音移到“That's”,并用升调,则表示强烈的讽刺意味。此外,如果在词与词之间 稍做停顿,互不粘连,也可避免歧义产生。如:I scream(我尖叫)与ice cream(冰淇淋)。
2.词汇手段
在日常交际中,字面词义和意象意义有时相差甚远。教师在讲解词汇时,不应单纯着重于语 音、语义和语法特征,更要揭示其在不同交际环境中的内部变化和外部联系,可将此类词汇 作一归纳,辅之以不同情景,让学生体会使用这些词汇进行信息传递时,可产生不同的理解 和反应。此外还可以介绍一些有效的排除歧义的方法,例如:通过改变词汇搭配或调整词序 来避免歧义。如 The bank is the scene of the murder, “bank”的两个意义“银行”和 “河堤”都可以解释这个句子。这时,可以在bank 前加上修饰语“money”或“river”,句 意就一目了然,不妨碍理解了。
3.语法手段
在书面语中,我们可以运用词法和句法知识,采用调整词序、补全省略成分、改变连词、增 加时间状语、扩展句子、改变句型和运用标点等方法排除歧义。如Mary can't bear childr en可以扩展为Mary can't bear children if they are noisy和 Mary can't bear childre n because she is sterile,这样就清楚地表达了各自的含义。再如,It was a pretty sm all room可理解为:①这是一个漂亮的小房间;②这是一个相当小的房间。如果在句中加上标 点,就可以避免歧义:It was a pretty, small room。
4.语境手段
语境对于英语歧义的确定有着重要的意义,语言形式所表达的意义必须依赖于它所使用的语 境才能得以确定[3]。语境可以分为广义语境和狭义语境。广义语境指与言语交际 相关的 整个自然、社会和文化环境。狭义语境则指上下文,即词组语境、句子语境、段落语境和篇 章语境。如“Afghanistan's occupation”是指“阿富汗占领其他国家”还是“其他国家占 领阿富汗”这个句子是由于所有格的使用而产生了歧义。但如果知道在2001年,美国打击 阿富汗塔利班政权这种广义语境,自然就会消除歧义。
此外,语言不仅是一个符号系统,而且是一种文化载体,语境制约着单位语言的选择,意义 的表达和理解。因此,知晓语境对正确理解语言形式起着至关重要的作用。例如,我们今天 所说的Broadway, 不仅是指一个地理概念,而且是指美国戏剧艺术的精粹。语言形式和意义 的用法都与语境有着密切的关系,我们在教授语言时,应给予极大的重视。
三、结束语
英语歧义问题是一个大课题,它面对的是语言的形式和意义之间的矛盾这一普遍事实,因而 它具有重要的理论意义和实践意义。对歧义的研究有助于我们不断深化对语言现象的认识, 正确理解语言结构及其运行规律,以便能按照语言的规律去学习和教授语言。作为语言工作 者和学习引导者的教师,应重视这一语言现象,将英语歧义理论研究与实际教学相结合,使其 产生语言学和教学两方面的意义。
参考文献:
[1]张逵.英语歧义与幽默[J].山西师大学报(社会科学版), 1993,(3):28-29.
[2]邱述德.英语歧义[M].北京:商务印书馆, 1998.
[3]刘明东.语境与英汉翻译中词义的确定[J].外语教学, 2001,(4):5 4.
第三篇:从修辞角度谈歧义现象总结
从修辞角度谈歧义现象
【内容摘要】歧义是指一个句子的含义不明确,可以作两种或两种以上的解释。从修辞角度说,只要巧妙利用歧义便会起到积极的修辞效果。在中学语文教学过程中,利用同音词、多义词、语法、语义、语境等造成的歧义进行分析理解来提高学生说话、写作、阅读和欣赏的能力,打破学生的思维定势,培养他们的创新能力。
【关键词】歧义 巧用歧义 修辞效果
在汉语里往往会存在这种情况,一个语言片段可作两种或两种以上的解释,我们就把这种现象称为歧义现象。
由于汉语句子形态标志较少,同音词和多义词较多,因此歧义现象也相当普遍,这就引起了我国语言学界对歧义的研究。最早从理论上去探索歧义的著作有吕淑湘、朱德熙两先生1951年在《人民日报》上发表的《语法修辞讲话》,到1959年赵元任发表的《汉语中的歧义问题》是最早的一篇就汉语歧义问题进行理论探讨的专论,到1980年,朱德熙先生发表的《汉语里的歧义现象》对歧义现象进行了比较系统的研究,后来石安石、熊文华、徐思益、王催成等人从不同角度对歧义进行了研究,虽然他们对歧义的看法不一致,但大致可分为四类,即词汇歧义、语法歧义、语义关系歧义与语境歧义。
词汇歧义指因词的多义或同音造成的歧义现象。有的多义词在句子中可以有不同的理解,从而会造成歧义句。例如:(1)“他已经走了。”“走”可以有两种理解,一个是指“离开此处”,另外一个是“去世”,因为汉语中的“走”可以作为“去世"的委婉说法来使用。在这种情况下会产生词汇歧义。有的同音词由于句中或上下文句制约因素缺乏,也会造成歧义。如同音异形词造成的歧义,一般是在口语中产生。例:(2)“你要好好说,不得wú lǐ。”在这可理解为“无礼”,也可理解为“无理”;又如:(3)“白了,真没办法。”这里的“白”是“白干”“徒劳无益”的意思,也可有“颜色白了”之意。
语法歧义指因句子的结构关系不同或层次分析不同造成的歧义现象。如(4)“发现了敌人的哨兵”可以理解为“发现了/敌人的哨兵”,也可以理解为“发现了敌人的/哨兵”,这两个句子的层次分析不同具有的意思也不同。
语义关系歧义指因结构项之间的关系不同造成的歧义现象。(5)初中语文课本中有一篇教材是朱德撰写的纪念母亲的文章,文章的原题目是“母亲的回忆”,这可以理解为“对母亲的回忆”,也可以理解为“母亲本人的回忆”,因为原有的题目有歧义所以后来朱德就把题目改为“回忆我的母亲”。
除了上述三类歧义现象以外,还有语境歧义。语境歧义是指不同的语境使同样的话语产生不同的理解。皮远长先生在《略论语境歧义的产生》中说“语境在歧义现象中具有作用截然相反的两种功能:既能消除歧义,又能产生歧义”。可见大部分歧义问题在语境中都可以消除,把歧义置于一定的上下文或者一定的生活环境里就可以消解,如上文例(1)若把它置于一定的语言环境中便可以消除歧义,可以创设这样的情景“这张病床的人呢?”“他已经走了,办出院手续了。”也可以说“他已经走了,走的时候很安详,很平静。”
从语法角度来看,我们说话写文章时要把自己的思想、观点、态度准确无误地表达给听者、读者,此时我们就要消除歧义,力避语病,但这只是我们对歧义现象基本的消极的看法,如果我们有意地巧妙地对歧义现象加以使用,便会产生积极的修辞效果,且成为使用语言的人驾驭语言的一种能力。在中学语文教学过程中,为了表达的需要,为了获得特别的修辞效果,本来可以用意义更明确的词语,却故意选用可能造成歧解的言辞,巧妙地利用歧义,使学生的思维发散,能多角度、多方位、多层次地思考理解并渗透问题的实质,突破固定的思维模式,培养学生的创新能力,同时也使学生的说话、写作、阅读和欣赏的能力有所提高。
本文将从词汇歧义、语法歧义、语义关系歧义、语境歧义等方面来谈谈巧用歧义及其产生的修辞效果。
(一)从词汇方面说,巧妙地使用因同音词、多义词而产生的歧义,能丰富语言的容量,拓展思维的广度。
1、同音同形词歧义的修辞。
例如(6)“好了,好了!”看的人们说,大约是劝解的。
“好,好!”看的人们说,不知道是劝解,是颂扬,还是煽动。(鲁迅《阿Q正传》)
这是阿Q与小D的一场龙虎斗,吸引了不少的看客,前段的意思很明确,后段有了歧义“好”字可以有以下几种理解:a 结束语气,表示劝解;b 赞许语气,表示颂扬;c嘲讽语气,表示煽动。这样给学生分析,他们就能体会道作者如何用精炼的语言概括出各种不同的感情和态度,体会同音词表达表达多种感情的凝炼、含蓄。
(7)有一家茶叶店的门上贴着这样一副对联“龙井泉多奇味,武夷茶多异香”,其中的“龙井”“武夷”既是地名又是茶名,既指龙井、武夷两个地方又指两种名茶,使人见而思饮,这样一语双关的对联,读来特别启人联想,发人深思,耐人寻味。
2、同音异形词歧义的修辞
例如:(8)北宋时,佛印和尚和苏东坡曾在河边散步。东坡突然说:“我出一哑联让你对。”说罢,手指向河的对岸。这时,对岸有一只狗正在啃一块骨头。佛印和尚就领会是在挖苦他:“狗啃河上骨”。他马上把苏东坡手中的诗抢来抛在河里,意为“水流东坡诗”。
在“狗啃河上骨”“水流东坡诗”这两句里的“河上”谐音为“和尚”,“诗”谐音为“尸”,都是一语双关。佛印和尚在领会苏东坡的挖苦意时,巧妙的将苏诗仍到河里,含蓄机警的回应了苏东坡,挽回了自己的面子。他们都是智者,他们都巧用这种双关歧义的修辞手段,来表达自己内心的想法,调侃的同时又不失幽默风趣,无不闪烁出智慧的火花。
(9)······中间挂着一块匾道:三味书屋,匾下面是一幅画,画着一只很肥大的梅花鹿伏在古树下,没有孔子的牌位,我们便对着那匾和鹿行礼。(鲁迅《从百草园到三味书屋》)在教学时,老师可以提问:三味书屋的匾下为何要画鹿而不画别的动物?又为何要对鹿行礼?学生的回答也许众说纷纭,造成歧义,老师一点拨:“鹿”与“禄”是谐音。在封建科举时代,“禄”是儒生们学习的动力和终生追求的目标,三味书屋以画代字,以“鹿”谐“禄”,绕了两个弯,让人顶礼膜拜,表意曲折,这样解释学生就会更快地理解文章的内容和作者的意图。3、多义词歧义的修辞
(10)老师问杨明:“‘蜜蜂给花园增添了生气’怎样理解?”杨明说:“蜜蜂偷花粉,花儿就生气了呗!”大家听了哄堂大笑,杨明辩驳道:“要是鲜花不生气,哪来鲜花怒放呀?”
老师问的“生气”是名词,用的是“生机勃勃”的词义,而杨明故意歧解为动宾短语,有意识地利用语料的多义性来表达自己的观点,让别人感知、欢迎或接受它,收到一种滑稽效果,使课堂寓庄于谐。
(11)白茹······在崇敬的眼光里射出了探问的神色,“王团长,生了吗?”战士们出神地静等着王团长答复。这个摸不着头脑的问题,王团长心里明白嘴上却有趣地反问:“哎!你这小白鸽,我和你这么亲热,你还说我生了,真不讲理。”“不!”白茹加重语气,“我问你,我们的指导员生了宝宝没有!”(曲波《林海雪原》)
“生”在这有两种意思,一是指生孩子,一是指生疏,白茹问的“生”是说王团长的老婆生孩子没有,而王团长故意曲解为生疏,同白茹开玩笑,从这可以看出王团长的幽默风趣,同时也可以引导学生体会巧用歧义带来的含蓄、生动、风趣的效果。
(二)从语法方面说,巧用因句子的结构关系的不同或层次分析的不同,能产生的积极的修辞效果。
(12)有这样一则小幽默叙述了甲乙二人如下的对话:
甲:用铁锤锤蛋,锤不破。
乙:锤得破!
甲:锤不破!
乙:(乙不服气,拿来一个鸡蛋,用锤打一下鸡蛋碎了。)这不是破了?
甲:蛋是破了,可我说的是“锤不破”啊!
原来甲说的“锤不破”是主谓关系的短语,是“锤会破”的否定形式,而乙则按中补关系的短语即“锤得破”的否定形式来理解了。这是利用歧义的结构关系变换法,甲在此一反常人的思维模式来和乙辩论,乙被框定在固有的思维模式中,最后自然是输给了甲。教师在进行语文教学的过程中可以把类似这样的小故事讲给学生听,激发学生多角度、多方位的思考问题,打破固有的思维定势,拓展开阔自己的思维。
(13)相传有个刻薄的富翁造了座高楼大厦,请一个秀才写楼联。秀才深知此翁为人,决意捉弄他一下,便写了“此地安能久居主人好不悲伤”这副楹联,并念成“此地安,能久居。主人好,不悲伤。”富翁听后颇为满意,待贴出来宾客们却个个偷偷地暗笑,富翁才明白了其中的奥秘,却又无可奈何。就是“这种地方不能久居,所以主人很悲伤”的意思。
又传,乾隆皇帝曾让纪晓岚在一副扇子上题王之焕的《凉州词》,可由于纪晓岚一时疏忽将第一句的“黄河远上白云间”的“间”字漏写了,皇上发现了待要治他戏君之罪时,他灵机一动为皇帝吟诵到“黄河远上,白云一片。孤城万仞山,羌笛何须怨。杨柳春风,不度玉门关”,皇上一听觉得韵味犹存,就免他一罪。
这两个小故事都巧用断句两读歧义来使听者产生不同的理解,同时也巧妙地为自己化解排难。断句两读歧义一般是出现在对联中,因为对联在实际应用中是不加标点的,在一般情况下不同的断句方式对对联的影响不大,但是有时候不同的断句方式会产生联意的大变化,甚至相反,上述两个例子就足以说明,换一种断句方式就能产生意想不到的效果。
(三)从语义关系方面说,利用语义双关造成的歧义可以加深理解表达的效果,能使听者感到饶有风趣、余味无穷。
(14)大画家张大千在一次宴会上对梅兰芳敬酒时说:“你是君子,我是小人”。这个句子有四种意思:a你是君子,我是小人;b你靠动口(唱),我靠动手(画);c你动口喝酒,我动手斟酒;d你讲道理,我不讲道理——非要你唱不可了。通过这个歧义句的分析我们可以更深刻地了解画家张大千所要表达的语意,一句话能暗含这么多的含义可见说话者的智慧,同时也使听者回味无穷,可以引导学生在说话作文时能学会这种语义双关的修辞手法,对培养学生的语感、语文素养有很大的帮助。
(15)下楼梯的时候,我的身体在倾斜的担架上微微滑动,他俯下身子对我意味深长地说:“要拿稳啊!”(伏契克《二六七号牢房》)
“要拿稳”,表面是老爸爸贝舍克叫伏契克抓稳担架,以免身子滑动,实际上是鼓励伏契克要坚定信念,顽强斗争,从容对敌,毫不妥协,是对他受审的关切、勉励。学生们很容易从表现来理解,老师应顺着思路,引导学生深刻地理解内在的涵义。
(四)从语境方面说,在上文提到语境能消除歧义的作用,主要是将词汇、语法、语义关系引起的歧义放入具体的特定的语言环境中,歧义便可消除。但语境在一定情况下也能产生歧义,且会产生戏剧性的效果。
例如:鲁迅的《药》里写刽子手康大叔向茶客讲述了牢头阿义如何打了革命者夏瑜两嘴巴,接着说:“他这贱骨头打不怕,还要说可怜可怜哩”花白胡子的人说,“打了这种东西,有什么可怜呢?”康大叔显出看他不上的样子,冷笑着说,“你没有听清我的话;看他神气,是说阿义可怜哩!”
愚昧而凶残的康大叔,绝不可能理解夏瑜说可怜的含义,但他从夏瑜说这句话时的“神气”,也就是借助情景语境的制约,正确地断定夏瑜说的“可怜可怜”是指“阿义可怜”。而花白胡子由于不在夏瑜说话的现场,缺少康大叔所受到的那种情景语境的制约,他就只能按自己的理解,把夏瑜的话歧解为夏瑜“可怜”了。
再如,周朴园:我听说你现在做了一件很对不起你自己的事情。
周萍:(惊)什-么?
周朴园:(走到周萍的面前)你知道你现在做的事对不起你的父亲的么?并且-(停)-对不起你的母亲的么?
周萍:(失措)爸爸。
周朴园:(仁慈地)你是我的长子,我不愿意当着人谈这件事。(稍停,严厉地)我听说我在外面的时候,你这两年来在家里很不规矩。
周萍:(更惊恐)爸,没有的事,没有。
周朴园:一个人敢做,就要敢当。
周萍:(失色)爸!
周朴园:公司的人说你总是在跳舞场里鬼混,尤其是这两三个月,喝酒,赌钱,整夜地不回家。
周萍:哦,(放下心)您说的是-
周朴园:这些事是真的么?(半晌)说实话!
周朴园:真的,爸爸(红了脸)
周朴园的指责是指周萍“总在跳舞场里鬼混”,“喝酒,赌钱,整夜地不回家”。而周萍却把这种指责与自己同后母繁漪的乱伦关系联系起来,误以为周朴园知道了这贱家丑,因而惊恐失色,不知所措。周萍作这种联系,是由他的背景语境决定的,正是“做贼心虚”使他歧解了周朴园的指责,从而起到戏剧性的效果。
再如,《阿Q正传》中描写阿Q受审时的对话:“你从实招来罢,免得吃苦。我早都知道了。招了可以放你。”那光头的老头看定了阿Q的脸,沉静的清楚的说。
“招罢”长衫人物也大声说。
“我本来要······来投······”阿Q胡里胡涂的想了一通,这才断断续续的说。
“那么,为什么不来呢?”老头子和气的问。“假洋鬼子不准我!”
“胡说!此刻说,也迟了。现在你的同党在那里?” “什么?······”
“那一晚打劫赵家的一伙人。”
在这段对话里,阿Q和老头子都是顺着各自的思路在说话:阿Q听说要他“招”,便想为自己申辩,说“我本来要······来投······”,是指“投革命党”。老头子按审判者的语境,把“投”理解成“投案自首”。这就在“投”的对象上与阿Q的本意偏离,往下的对话也就沿着各自的思路越离越远,以致彼此都听不懂对方在说什么:老头子骂阿Q“胡说!”阿Q茫然地问“什么?”
歧义句与语言表达的明确性这个要求,总的来看,是相互矛盾的。没有特定的上下文条件,不能排除歧解的可能性时,属于语病,就不宜使用。但出于表达的需要,用得其所,使用得法,反而可以满足表达的需要,起到积极修辞的效果。朱德熙曾说过:“一种语言语法系统里的错综复杂和精细微妙之处,往往在歧义现象中得到反映。”
总之,巧用歧义能带来很好的修辞效果。作为中学语文教师,应在教育教学过程中,教会学生仔细体会歧义现象中的错综复杂的精细微妙,更好地体现出语文学科的性质、特点,丰富、规范、提纯、陶冶学生的语言,高度重视语言感性材料的积累,使语言的感觉越来越敏锐,让学生真正做到对知识感知、吸收、融汇、内化,提高驾驭语言的能力。分析笑话中的语言学现象,当可提高汉语教学效果。
我们最近读到几则与歧义有关的语言笑话,特记录如下:
(一)本科
人大代表去化验科,护士指着前方一牌说:“非本科人员不得入内!“那人大怒,骂道:“我就化验个尿,还TMD要本科文凭!!” 这里歧义产生的原因是词和词组同形。有两个“本科”,本科1是指本科学历,是词。本科2是指本科室,是代词“本”加名词“科”构成的词组。
(二)锤不破 杀猪的和卖茶的打赌。
杀猪的说:“用铁锤锤蛋锤不破。” 卖茶的说:“锤得破!” 杀猪的说:“锤不破!”
卖茶的不服气,拿来一个鸡蛋,用锤子使劲打下去,鸡蛋破了。说:“这不是破了吗?”
杀猪的说:“蛋是破了,可我说的是锤不破啊!”说着他指指铁锤。“锤不破”是语法关系不同的歧义词组:当“锤”是名词时,它是主谓词组,当“锤”是动词时,它是述补词组。
(三)从来不用油炸
一个人来到炸油条摊上对主人说:“呀!炸油条,一天要用多少油?!”
主人说:“哪有炸油条不用油的。” “真浪费,怪可惜。”
“可惜,也要炸,不用油,怎能炸油条?” “我家祖宗几代都是卖油条的,从来不用油炸。”
主人想得到他的秘诀,忙请他吃饭,殷勤地招待他。酒足饭饱之后,他低声地对主人说:“我家几代人卖油条,都是贩来卖的,所以不用油炸。”
主人一听,傻眼了。
“从来不用油炸”可以作不同的层次分析。可以切分为“从来不/用油炸”,也可以切分为“从来不用/油炸”。(或者也可以说“不”有不同的语义指向,“不”可以语义指向“用油”,意思是炸,但是不是用油而是用别的东西炸;“不”也可以语义指向“炸”或整个“用油炸”,意思是根本不炸。)
(四)一滴就灵
顾客:“癣药,价钱多少?” 店员:“每瓶3角!” 顾客:“一滴,卖多少钱?”
店员:“怎么可以买一滴?起码一瓶。” 顾客:“你们广告上明明说:一滴就灵!” “一滴就灵”可以是主谓关系,意思是“一滴的药就能差生灵验的效果”,也可以是连谓结构/紧缩复句,意思是只要滴一点儿,马上就灵。
(五)你这头畜牲输了
阿尔巴和阿尔比两位到坎曼尔这儿打官司。两个人都给坎曼儿送东西,都求求让自己胜诉。阿尔巴送的是一头公羊。
判决结果,坎曼儿让阿尔巴败诉。
事后,阿尔巴来质问坎曼儿:“我的咯孜,你该没有忘记我给你表示了一点儿意思吧?”
“我没有忘记,”坎曼儿说,“你要知道人家也表示了一点儿意思啊!既然你们都凭那一点‘意思’作为诉讼的理由,那我也就根据这两点‘意思;作为判案的根据。我把它们放在一起,结果你的‘意思’,那头公羊输了,阿尔比自然也就获胜啦!”
阿尔巴大怒,问道:“阿尔比送了什么?”
“别生气,我的巴依!”坎曼儿说,“他送的是一头公牛,我把两头出生一碰,结果你这头畜牲输了!”
“你这头畜牲输了”,可以是“你的这头畜牲输了”,也可以是“你这头畜牲你输了”,“你这头畜牲”在前一种情况下是定心词组,后一种情况下复指(同位)词组。语法结构关系不同造成歧义。
左右逢源看歧义
随着时代的发展,高考题型也日渐成熟,单纯考查语法的题型正在被淘汰,而词语使用方面的内容则越来越受到命题者的重视,并且考题越出越细,考查面越来越广。其中,大纲基础知识部分的“病句”部分中“歧义”一项一直是近些年考查的重点。通过对这类题的深入探究,我们发现了一些近似于规律性的东西,现归纳如下。
《现代汉语词典》中对“歧义”一词的解释是:(语言文字)两歧或多歧的意义,有两种或多种可能的解释。歧义的发生有多种原因,这里我们姑且把它分成六类。
第一类,断句造成的歧义。
例(1)
“歧义”绝不是一个现代的概念,这一点我们可以从古代的许多经典传说中获得佐证。如一则古代小故事中这样讲道:
“一位秀才到朋友家做客,不巧的是快要返家时天下起了大雨,眼看着无法回家,客人希望主人留自己住宿,于是就写了一行字来探问:下雨天(,)留客天(。)留我不留(?)由于古代文章中没有标点,于是主人就故意和他开了一个玩笑,把这句话读成了:下雨天(,)留客(。)天留(,)我不留(。)心有灵犀的客人哈哈一笑,重新读道:下雨天(,)留客天(。)留我不(?)留(。)” 释例:(1)这一句话(下雨天留客天留我不留)三种断句法,就有三种合情合理的解释,正是一个“断句歧义”的经典案例。
例(2)
妈妈想远在国外的女儿夜夜难眠。
释例:(2)这句话有两种句内停顿,表示两种不同的意思:
妈妈想远在国外的女儿/夜夜难眠。(妈妈难眠)
妈妈想/远在国外的女儿夜夜难眠。(女儿难眠)
若想消除歧义,在口语表达时,就不要一气读完这个句子,应在斜线处略作停顿;书面表达时,则必须在斜线处加上逗号,以明确语意,消除歧义。
第二类,一词多义造成的歧义。
例(1)
鸡吃了吗?
例(2)
这批种子保管没问题。
例(3)
走进屋里,只见主人坐在一把太师椅上,一边站着一个孩子。
释例:(1)中的“吃”是一个主动与被动合一的词。因此,句中的主语“鸡” 既可以是动作的发出者(即“鸡吃(饲料)了吗?”),又可以是动作的被动承受者(即“(你们把)鸡吃了吗?”)。
(2)中的“保管”有两种意义,一是“保证”,一是“保存和管理”。因此,句意可以是“这批种子保证没问题”,也可以是“这批种子保存和管理没问题”。
(3)“一边”有两种意思,一个是“只有一边”(左边或右边),一个是“两边”。
对于在做此类题目过程中出现的一词多义现象,我们必须多加注意,以便更准确地把握这类因词义而起的歧义。
第三类,一词多性造成的歧义。
汉语的词汇非常丰富,语法也极为复杂。许多词的词性都并非单纯的一种,这种一个词多种词性的情况也是歧义发生的潜在因素。
例(1)一道传统的脑筋急转弯题目是这样的:“铁锤锤碗锤不碎,这是为什么?”它的答案是:“因为铁锤比碗结实,所以铁锤锤碗锤(子)不碎。” 例(2)
这车没有锁。
例(3)
班长背着老师和同学们把教室打扫得干干净净。
释例:(1)这道题的题眼正是“锤”字的两种词性,即名词和动词。
(2)“锁”字有两种词性,即名词和动词。
(3)这道题的题眼在于“和”字的两种词性,即介词与连词。是介词,则句子中打扫教室的是“班长”和“同学们”;是连词,那么句子中打扫教室的是“班长”自己。
这一类的词还有许多,如“钉”、“扣”、“盖(”都兼有名词和动词的词性),“跟”“同”“与”(都兼有连词和介词词性)。做练习时碰到这类词语应该提高警惕。
第四类,多个修饰语造成的歧义。
句子中的修饰语超过一个就可能引起句子歧义。这种情况往往会发生在定语和中心词之间,因为多个定语既可以存在修饰关系,又可以“多对一”地同时修饰一个中心词。
例(1)几个学校的老师出席了这次大会。
例(2)在落后的国民党统治的旧中国,老百姓的生活困苦不堪。
例(3)几个已故的政协委员的妻子也参加了这次活动。
释例:(1)中,“几个学校的老师”既可以理解为“一个学校的几个老师”,又可以理解为“‘几个学校的’老师”。
(2)中“落后的国民党统治的旧中国”既可以理解为“落后”的是国民党,又可以理解为“落后”的是旧中国。因此两个句子都是歧义句。
(3)中“已故的政协委员的妻子”虽然也有多个修饰语,但如解释成“‘政协委员的已故妻子’参加活动”显然是荒唐的,因此只能有一种解释,就是“‘政协委员的遗孀’参加了活动”。因此,例(3)不能算是歧义句。举此例的目的是提醒大家细心分辨,不能疏忽。
第五类,代词使用不当造成的歧义。
人称代词和指示代词的适当运用可以避免上下句同一名词的反复出现,使语言表达精练。如果使用不当,则会造成称代不明,产生歧义。
例(1)
小明和小刚在学校图书馆相遇。他一看见他,马上把班级篮球对获胜的好消息告诉了他。
例(2)
哈尔滨在长春的北面,沈阳在长春的南面。这是一个极具文化氛围的城市。
释例:(1)句中出现三个“他”,到底是谁告诉了谁,人称代词指代不明造成了歧义。
(2)句中前面出现了三个城市,后面的指示代词“这”是指哪一个,读者也会有不同的理解。
第六类,缺少必要词语造成的歧义。
我们平时说话时,往往会为了省事而去掉许多虚词,但并不是说虚词可有可无,更多的时候虚词的省略不当会在句子中造成歧义。例(1)
参加这次校庆的有在校学生、教师和老校友10000多人。
例(2)
朦胧中听见广播到奉节。停泊时天已微明。
释例:(1)句有两种理解:一是参加这次校庆的在校学生、教师和老校友的总数是10000多人。另一种是参加这次校庆的除了在校学生、教师外,还有10000多名老校友。如果想要表达的是前一种意思,可以在在“老校友”后加“共”、“总共”一类词;如果想要表达的是后一种意思,则可以在“老校友”前增添“还有”、“此外还有”一类词来表示区分。
(2)中“听见广播到奉节”有两种理解,一是,广播的内容提到奉节,另一种是,广播报站说船已经到了奉节。根据句意,应为后一种理解,那么就应该在“广播”后面加上“说船”二字,意思就清楚了。
上述六种类别,我们只是粗略地将歧义划分类别,希望那些面对歧义感到茫然的学生能因此而有所收获,受到启发,那我们将感到无比欣慰。
第四篇:英语歧义与英语教学
英语歧义与英语教学
李建良
摘要
歧义是语言教学中的客观存在,怎么样正确地认识二者之间的关系,区分不同形式的歧义现象,从而消除语义障碍促进教学,将是本文研究的重点。本文将主要从交际效应的角度出发,把交际过程中出现的歧义现象分为无意歧义(unintentional ambiguity)和蓄意歧义(intentional ambiguity),并分别结合教学实践加以分析举例。关键词
歧义
教学
交际效应
语义障碍
Abstract: Ambiguity really exists in language teaching.The key points: how to understand their relationship, distinguish between different kinds of ambiguity so as to remove semantic hindrance are to be discussed.According to communicative effect, this paper is to cover unintentional ambiguity and intentional ambiguity which comes forth in communication, and analyze them with examples from actual teaching.Key words: ambiguity
teaching
communicative effect
semantic hindrance
一、英语歧义现象
任何语言都有歧义现象,英语也不例外。歧义在语言中的客观存在是不容忽视的。Leech将歧义定义为“„一个语言项目具有一个以上的认知意义。”因此大部分语言工作者都普遍相信,当结构上遵循语法规则、语义上符合逻辑常理的语句,其深层可包含两种或两种以上的释义,则会出现歧义(ambiguity)。不过,以上对于歧义的理解多把它局限于以词语、句子为单位的语言素材中,其实,在语言运用中,我们发现在大于句子的语段和语篇中也会存在歧义现象。因此,笔者认为,我们不妨把歧义理解为“一个语言项目(包括词、句等)或一个语篇(一首诗,一段叙事,一则广告)具有两个或多于两个含义的语言现象”。
目前,大多研究仅局限于对歧义类型的总结、歧义现象的描述,而未将其置于实际的交际使用和实际教学中加以探讨。另外,很多语言学家在研究这一语言现象时,往往是从固有歧义出发,尽可能脱离上下文对歧义的语义制约,来进行研究。从交际语言观的角度来看,这样是不符合语言使用的本质特性的。
二、无意歧义与交际教学
无意歧义则是由于语言使用者本身或语言结构自身的缺陷,而导致交流受损的语言现象。那么如何避免无意歧义有可能造成的对语言交流的损害呢?从教师的角度来看,如果教师首先帮助学生系统地建立“歧义”这一概念,让学生了解到语音结构中,有限的音素交叉组合,同音词或词组的存在有可能导致歧义误读;在词汇中,有限的字母组合拼写,会导致一词多义、一义多词的现象;句法结构中,有限的句型进行组合时也有可能导致歧义出现。在此,笔者就自己在学习和教学中所遇到的实例进行探讨。
1、语音结构引起的无意歧义
口头交际中,连续语篇的听觉单位是呼吸组而非单词,因此有不同单词组成的两个语音相同的呼吸组可出现同音异形的现象。如: Where’re those stools? Where’re those tools? What’re these sticks? What’re these ticks?
不同的单词组成的两个相同的呼吸组形成同音异形异义,导致了无意歧义的发生。这是如果在词与词之间少做停顿,互不粘连,便可以避免歧义产生。或者,有意识的指导学生在中心词周围加上一定的限定修饰成分,也可起到避免无意歧 1 义的作用。如:
Where’re those stools for me to stand on? Where’re those left-handed tools?
2、句法结构引起的无意歧义
美国语言学家Roberts 曾指出:“这种因句法规则使用不当而引起的句法歧义是由于人们忽视使用表明句子结构的句法代号而引起的。”(引自陈汉生《基础英语中的几种歧义现象》)下面是几种常见的句法结构引起的歧义现象,以及笔者建议的消解对策。
a.名b.词(动词)+动词(名c.词)
这是由于某词在句子中的词类解读不同而造成的无意歧义。例如:
Our club demands change.很明显,“demands”和“change”都可以被解读成不同的词类,即既可以是名词,又可以是动词。那么在实际交际中,就有可能被理解成 1)our club demands to have some change.2)the demands of our club are not the same as before.为了避免这种类似的误读现象发生,我们可以指导学生使用某些句法代号来表明这些易混词的词类。如在demand前使用情态动词will,demand 词尾加一般过去时的后缀;change前加a或some。这样使之分别呈现出名词或动词的特征。
b.修饰语+名e.词
English teacher是在交际教学中时常引起歧义的一种现象。它即可能是1)一位教英语的老师,也可能是2)一位来自英国的老师。要限定English teacher是表达1或2的意思,关键在于明确它是复合名词还是有修饰语家名词组成的名词短语。在交际教学中,教师可以指导学生依靠重音模式来区分上述不同结构。因此,教师可以通过帮助学生理解怎样在交际中使用不同的重音来强调、区别自己想要表达的重点。另外,也可以通过常识和交际语境来进行推理。c.动词词组+名g.词(动词)宾语
下面也是引起语言歧义现象比较典型的句子:
The doctor looked over my head.句中的over是副词还是介词?如果是副词,则和动词组成复合动词,意为examine quickly;如果是介词,则和后面的名词组成介宾短语,意为look above。因此这种句子在交际中会有两种解读方式:1医生检查了我的头。2 医生从我头
顶看去。
避免和消解这种歧义现象,可以通过提示学生over一词在句中如果用次重音并且在over前不用持续连音,那么,听者就会over理解为副词,而词组为复合动词词组;反之,over一词在句中使用第三重音,并且over之前使用持续连音,听者就会把它理解为介词,与其后的名词组成介词短语。
3、词汇引起的无意歧义
词汇引起的无意歧义有两种形式:具有多个义项的一个词和拼写相同的多个词。虽然孤立状态的多义词会有多个词义,但在交际教学中,学生接触的语料都有语境相随,起到制约的作用,因而大多数情况下,只有一个词义适合上下文,但如果语境对多义词制约不够严格,就会出现无意歧义。如:
She can’t bear children so she never talks about them.可释义为1)她不能生小孩,所以也从不谈论孩子。2)她不能忍受孩子,所以也从不谈论这个话题。
词汇歧义形形色色:
We saw the light.(我们看见了灯。/我们明白了。)
He is well-known for his long face.(他因脸长而著名。/他因常闷闷不乐而著称。)
在日常交际中,字面词义和意向义往往相差很大。因此在交际教学中,教师应将语言结构和词汇学习和语境相结合,使学生根据不同的语境产生不同的联想;不同的语气声调也会承载不同的信息,教师可以有侧重点的对学生进行专题练习,辅之以不同情景,让学生体会使用这些词汇
进行信息传递时,产生的不同理解和反映
三、蓄意歧义和交际教学
在交际活动中,最令学习者感到难以琢磨的应该算是语言幽默了,而它的根本特征就是利用语言上的歧义。它常常是说话者的故意安排,通过多种语言手段在语音、词汇、句法等层次上反映出来,利用语言细微的差别达到耐人寻味、或出其不意的戏剧效果。
1、语音引起的蓄意歧义
在利用语音制造蓄意歧义交际效果时,同音(形)异义词(组)(homonym)经常被用来进行有意识的巧妙安排。如flour(面粉)和flower(花朵),need(需要)和knead(揉面)等,他们发音相同,但意义各异,常常会使人产生误解。如一家健身房的广告是:
We have courses to make grown men young and young men groan.这里就采用了蓄意歧义来制造幽默效果,因为grown(成年的)和groan(呻吟)是一对同音异义词,被巧妙的用在了同一个句子中,幽默油然而生。
2、词汇引起的蓄意歧义
词汇引起的蓄意歧义不仅产生于发音相同而意义相异的两个词,也产生于同一个词的两种不同意义,即一词多义。因此一个词的确切意义必须由其语境来判断。语境不同,或语境不明,或故意弄的模模糊糊,多会产生双关或暗指这样的特殊交际效果。比如:
到幽默是智慧的体现。
四、结
语
对交际教学而言,由于歧义现象是结构形式
和意义之间的矛盾而生,歧义的触发、显露、消除和利用的全过程,会帮助学生理解语言是一个多层面、多因素相互协调有相互制约的对立统一体,语言的语音和文字形式之间有着微妙而复杂的联系,这种理解有利于学生树立全面、辨证的语言观,建立从整体上去把握语言的理念。
另外,在英语实践方面,由于歧义是由语言结构和语言意义之间的矛盾而生,因而在组织学生按照交际情景学习语言时,不应忽略语言结构形式的掌握;不应放弃其交际功能的学习。在讲解词汇和结构形式时,不应单纯着眼于其语音、语义和语法特征,更要揭示其在不同交际环境中的内部变化和外部联系。参考文献
“Fourth floor, please.” said the
1、文炼、允贻.歧义问题[M].黑龙江人民出版passenger to the elevator.社,1985.“Here you are, son.”
2、邱述德.英语歧义[M].商务印书馆,1998.“How dare you call me son?”
“I brought you up, didn’t I?”(我带你上
3、陈汉生.基础英语中的几种歧义现象[J].外来的,不是吗?/我把你养大的,不是吗?)国语,1995(1).因为英语中许多习语不能按其字面组成词的意
4、沈家煊.英语中的歧义类型[J].现代外语,思来解释,而是具有作为习语的特定含义,因此1985(1).这也成了蓄意歧义的一种来源。
5、贾德霖.与歧义探源[J].现代外语,19913、句法结构引起的蓄意歧义(4).句法关系的不同也可以制造出蓄意歧义的6、王萃田译.英语结构上的歧义现象[J].现代外效果,即在同一句子的内部因存在着不同的内在语,1984(3).句法关系而可以做出不同的解释。而形成蓄意歧
7、秦洪林.歧义与模糊辨析[J].徐州师范学报,义。比如: 1993(2).8、王洪跃.英语句法歧义比较[J].河南师大学 For more than a year, a man had eaten in a small restaurant where the sign
报,1993(5).9、张逵.英语歧义与幽默[J].山西师大学报,read:“ Mary’s Home Cooking”.However,1993(3).he had never had never seem Mary.When he finally curiously asked the waiter why
Mary was never around, the answer was
“Mary was just where the sign says she is, home cooking.”
招牌上的这句话,其中的’s结构,从句法结构上看可以是所有格形式,这是意思为“玛丽的家常拿手菜”;也可以是to be的缩写,这就成了“玛丽在家里做饭了”。
总之,在英语交际教学中,教师可以首先引导学生学会欣赏蓄意歧义达到的交际效果,意识
第五篇:校报投稿文章----英语歧义
英语歧异现象解析
外语系 陈媛媛
歧义是一种奇特的语言现象,它存在于各种语言中,是语言结构形式与其意义之间的特殊关系。从产生渠道看,可将其分为蓄意歧异和无意歧异,前者是为了达到某种效果故意而为之,后者则完全是语言交流中无意产生的。从语言本身探究,则可划出三大类,语音歧异,词汇歧异,语法歧异。对于商务英语专业的学生,交际教学占到了相当大的比重,跟踪歧异的触发,显露,消除,和利用的全过程会帮助学生理解语言是一个多层面,多因素相互协调相互制约的对立统一体。
1. 语音歧异
1)同音异形异义词
在给学生讲时间的表达方法时,常以two to two(1:58)为例,初次听到时常理解为two two two 的连读。再如sea(海洋)与see(看见),meet(遇见)与meat(肉)等等不胜枚举。
2)同音同形异义词
例如英语中的一句饶口令,I saw a saw saw a saw.第一个saw是动词see的过去式,第二个和最后一个saw是名词“锯子”,第三个是动词“锯”故该句应翻译为“我看见一把锯子在锯另一把锯子。”
2. 词汇歧异
词汇歧异是由于对某一个词有不同的理解而产生的歧义。例如,Mike saw the light.本句译为迈克看见了那盏灯,也可以译为迈克明白了。再如,He turned out a thief.可理解成完全相反的意思,他原来是个小偷,或他赶走了一个小偷,而产生歧异的核心就是对词组turn out的理解。
3.语法歧异
语法歧异即为结构歧异,表现在相同的表层结构可能有两个或两个以上的深层结构,因而有不同的解释。英语语法的功能具有多样性,在一个句子中同一个词可能具有不同的功能。例如:Our company demands change.当句中的demands理解为动词时句子可翻译成“我们的公司要求改变”当demands理解成名词时,整句就变成了“我们公司的要求(或需求)改变了。”另外英文中的否定句也易产生歧异,如:I didn’t go to school because I hated to study English.这句话若理解为部分否定则译为“我没有去学校因为我讨厌学英语”,若理解为完全否定则译为“我不是因为讨厌英语才没有去上学的。”语法结构常见的歧异有以下几种情况:
(1)省略结构引起的歧义。如:I like my mother as well as my father.:I like my mother as well as my faiher doesI like my mother and I like my father too.(2)句子中某个词所修饰的词的不同而引起的歧义。如:Mary told me yesterday she had been to the museun.本句即可以理解为“昨天,玛莉告诉我她去了博物馆。”又可以理解为“玛莉告诉我她是昨天去了博物馆。”又如:I saw her in the library我在图阵馆看见了她。(介词短语做状语)或理解为:我看见她在图书馆。(介词短语做宾语补足语)
(3)否定词引起的歧义。英语中的很多否定句都是有歧义的。在阅读时只能通过上下文来得出正确的结论,排除歧义。一般说来,从语法上看,not与谓语动词连接时,是否定谓语动词的,no与名词连接时,是否定名词的。但是,从否定的重心来看,却并不如此。另外,不定代词中的every,a1l, both以及副词quite always等,与否定词结合时,不是全部否定
而是部分否定,即:不是“全不是”,而是“不全是”。通常,如果谓语动词是否定的,而后而又接上一个状语.很容易引起歧义。如;He didn’t sing to p lease h is girl friend.显然,这句话有两种意思:他并不是为了使女朋友高兴才去唱歌的。或,为了使女朋友高兴他去唱歌。
(5)动词不定式短语引起的歧义。英语中有些动词既可以作及物动词又可以作不及物动词。其主动形式往往有被动的意义,这种情况下通常会产生歧义。如:The tiger is too smal1 to k i l1该句有两种理解:The tiger is too small to kill others和The tiger is too small for others to kill.综上可知,学生只有对英语表达中的歧异有正确而深入的认知,才能做到尽可能避免,甚至特殊场景下,充分利用,达到一语双关的目的。