第一篇：探讨英语语篇中的语调功能-以奥巴马就职演说为例
摘要：在日常交流中，人们经常借助语调实现话语的涵义，表达自己的情感、态度、判断和评价。而英语语调是英语语音中的重要组成部分，它通常反映了说话者话语中的音高的高低和抑扬的变化。本文以美国总统奥巴马的就职演说为例，探讨了口语语篇中英语语调的表意功能。
关键词：英语语调 口语语篇 奥巴马就职演说 表意功能
一、引言
英语是世界上最受欢迎，也是应用最广的一门语言。其声调抑扬顿挫，音节轻重缓急，节奏清晰明快，富有音乐美（朱成鹏、白志敏，1994），因此，语调也经常被称为“语言的韵律”。目前关于英语语调的研究多为传统的研究，对于英语语调在语篇中的功能研究更是凤毛麟角（曲明文，2006），本文从口语语篇的实例分析入手，对英语语调的实际应用作一探讨。
二、英语语调的语法功能
在口头交流中，英语语调对表达意思、传递信息起着重要的作用，它使听话者更加容易理解说话者所要传递的信息。英语语调的语法功能已被广泛地接受，它把语调与句子结构联系起来改变语调。语调与语法紧密相关，我们甚至可以说它是语法的一部分。如：（本文语料皆选自奥巴马总统的就职演说的文化价值）
1.Forty-four Americans/have now`taken/the presidential`oath.2.That we are in the midst of′crisis/is now well`understood.（“/”表示停顿，“`”表示降调，“′”表示声调，“ˇ”表示降升调，“^”表示升降调，下同）陈述句中用降调标志一句话的结束，表示说话者的肯定语气。升调则常用于疑问句中，尤其是一般疑问句。降升调表示限制性肯定，通常含有言外之意。一般情况下，陈述句、祈使句、感叹句和特殊疑问句使用降调，一般疑问句使用升调，其它句型和从句也都有固定的语调模式（朱成鹏、白志敏，1994）。但是需要注意一点，在句型与声调之间没有一对一的联系，它们是两个各自独立的系统，却互相和谐地对语篇的意义起着重要作用。
三、英语语调的表态功能
语调最普通的功能就是用来表达态度或情感。在口头交流中，我们使用声调来告诉听话者我们的感觉、状态还有处境。相同的一句话如果我们以不同的语调来表达，就可能是生气、高兴、感激、厌烦等情绪。但在实际的交流中，语调是根据情境或说话者的不同而发生变化的。英语语调在口语表达中具有显著的表态作用，有重要的修辞价值。如：
1.`Homes have been`lost；`jobs`shed；`businesses`shuttered.Our health`care is too`costly；our`schools`fail too many...2.On this`day，we gather because we have chosen`hope over`fear，unity of`purpose
over`conflict and`discord.On this`day，wecome to proclaim an`end to the petty`grievances and`falsepromises，the`recriminations and worn out`dogmas，that for far toolong have`strangled our`politics.这两段话中说话者奥巴马都运用了排比句，并且句子的调心都用了降调，表示其对于解决经济危机问题态度的坚决和肯定，对于安抚和鼓励美国人民受挫的信心起到了重要作用。尽管我们可以简单地说语调和态度相关联，却不得不承认它们之间也没有直接的对应关系。人们在表达态度或情感时还结合了其它复杂的成分，如：声音条件、词汇选择、非语言行为、语境等。
四、英语语调的强调功能
语言中英语的强调手段多种多样。英语语调的强调功能是指说话者为了表达自己的思想感情，在讲话时，利用停顿、增加音素的长度、加强重音等语音手段，对句子的某个或某些词加以强调（朱成鹏、白志敏，1994）。当说话者想要在话语中强调某个信息的时候，最有效的方法就是变该词为调核重音，由音调的变化表示话语中的主次要信息。如：
1.But know this，America-theyˇwill be`met.2....the God-given promise that`all are equal，`all are free，and`all deserve a chance to pursue their full measure of happi-ness.3.All this we`can do.And all this we`will do.节选的这三句话，说话者奥巴马都利用了语调的变化强调了某一部分内容（强调部分加粗表示）。例句一奥巴马在美国公民面前肯定地表示了面对危机，所有的困难政府都将会解决的决心。同时“will”一词运用了降升调，表示了对于问题解决时间的不确定性，但是这只是一个时间问题。例句2中，奥巴马想要强调的是世界所有人民平等、自由、追求幸福的权利，体现了美国平等自由的思想。最后的例子则是坚定地鼓励了所有民众应该各尽其职、各尽其能为国家的发展作出贡献。
五、结语
英语语调是语言学研究一个较复杂的分支，正如韩礼德所说，语篇分析中取得的最令人兴奋的发展是在语调方面的研究。本文属首次分析了英语语调在口语语篇实例中的表意功能，还需要更多学者作进一步的研究与扩展。
参考文献：
［1］Brown，G.，Yule，G.Discourse Analysis.Cambridge：Cam-bridge University Press，1983.［2］Halliday，M.A.K.Introduction and Grammar in BritishEnglish.The Hague：Mouton，1967.［3］Halliday，M.A.K.An Introduction to Functional Grammar.London：Arnold，1985.［4］McCatthy，M.Discourse Analysis for Language Teachers.Shanghai：Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press，2002.［5］Roach，P.English Phonetics and Phonology：A PracticalCourse.Beijing：Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press，2000.［6］曲明文.英语语调在口头语篇中的意义［J］.外语教学，2006，（3）.［7］朱成鹏，白志敏.英语语调的表意功能［J］.山西大学师范学院学报（综合版），1994，（2）.
第二篇：奥巴马就职演说
奥巴马就职演说
MR.OBAMA: Thank you.Thank you so much.Vice President Biden, Mr.Chief Justice, Members of the United States Congress, distinguished guests, and fellow citizens:
谢谢，非常感谢大家。拜登副总统、首席大法官先生、国会议员们、尊敬的各位嘉宾、亲爱的公民们。
Each time we gather to inaugurate a president, we bear witness to the enduring strength of our Constitution.We affirm the promise of our democracy.We recall that what binds this nation together is not the colors of our skin or the tenets of our faith or the origins of our names.What makes us exceptional – what makes us American – is our allegiance to an idea, articulated in a declaration made more than two centuries ago:
每一次我们集会庆祝总统就职都是在见证美国宪法的持久力量。我们都是在肯定美国民主的承诺。我们重申，将这个国家紧密联系在一起的不是我们的肤色，也不是 我们信仰的教条，更不是我们名字的来源。让我们与众不同，让我们成为美国人的是我们对于一种理念的恪守。200多年前，这一理念在一篇宣言中被清晰阐述：
“We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness.”
“我们认为下述真理是不言而喻的，人人生而平等。造物主赋予他们若干不可剥夺的权利，包括生存、自由和追求幸福的权利。”
Today we continue a never-ending journey, to bridge the meaning of those words with the realities of our time.For history tells us that while these truths may be self-evident, they have never been self-executing;that while freedom is a gift from God, it must be secured by His people here on Earth.The patriots of 1776 did not fight to replace the tyranny of a king with the privileges of a few or the rule of a mob.They gave to us a Republic, a government of, and by, and for the people, entrusting each generation to keep safe our founding creed.今天，我们继续着这一未竟的征程，架起这些理念与我们时代现实之间的桥梁。因为历史告诉我们，即便这些真理是不言而喻的，它们也从来不会自动生效。因为虽 然自由是上帝赋予的礼物，但仍需要世间的子民去捍卫。1776年，美国的爱国先驱们不是只为了推翻国王的暴政而战，也不是为赢得少数人的特权，建立暴民的 统治。先驱们留给我们一个共和国，一个民有、民治、民享的政府。他们委托每一代美国人捍卫我们的建国信条。
For more than two hundred years, we have.在过去的200多年里，我们做到了。
Through blood drawn by lash and blood drawn by sword, we learned that no union founded on the principles of liberty and equality could survive half-slave and half-free.We made ourselves anew, and vowed to move forward together.从奴役的血腥枷锁和刀剑的血光厮杀中我们懂得了，建立在自由与平等原则之上的联邦不能永远维持半奴隶和半自由的状态。我们赢得了新生，誓言共同前进。
Together, we determined that a modern economy requires railroads and highways to speed travel and commerce;schools and colleges to train our workers。
我们共同努力，建立起现代的经济体系。架设铁路与高速公路，加速了旅行和商业交流。建立学校与大学，培训我们的工人。
Together, we discovered that a free market only thrives when there are rules to ensure competition and fair play.我们一起发现，自由市场的繁荣只能建立在保障竞争与公平竞争的原则之上。
Together, we resolved that a great nation must care for the vulnerable, and protect its people from life’s worst hazards and misfortune.我们共同决定让这个伟大的国家远离危险，保护她的人民不受生命威胁和不幸的侵扰。
Through it all, we have never relinquished our skepticism of central authority, nor have we succumbed to the fiction that all society’s ills can be cured through government alone.Our celebration of initiative and enterprise;our insistence on hard work and personal responsibility, these are constants in our character.一路走来，我们从未放弃对集权的质疑。我们同样不屈服于这一谎言：一切的社会弊端都能够只靠政府来解决。我们对积极向上与奋发进取的赞扬，我们对努力工作与个人责任的坚持，这些都是美国精神的基本要义。
But we have always understood that when times change, so must we;that fidelity to our founding principles requires new responses to new challenges;that preserving our individual freedoms ultimately requires collective action.For the American people can no more meet the demands of today’s world by acting alone than American soldiers could have met the forces of fascism or communism with muskets and militias.No single person can train all the math and science teachers we’ll need to equip our children for the future, or build the roads and networks and research labs that will bring new jobs and businesses to our shores.Now, more than ever, we must do these things together, as one nation, and one people.我们也理解，时代在变化，我们同样需要变革。对建国精神的忠诚，需要我们肩负起新的责任，迎接新的挑战。保护我们的个人自由，最终需要所有人的共同努力。因为美国人不能再独力迎接当今世界的挑战，正如美国士兵们不能再像先辈一样，用步枪和民兵同敌人(法西斯主义与共产主义)作战。一个人无法培训所有的数学 与科学老师，我们需要他们为了未来去教育孩子们。一个人无法建设道路、铺设网络、建立实验室来为国内带来新的工作岗位和商业机会。现在，与以往任何时候相 比，我们都更需要团结合作。作为一个国家，一个民族团结起来。
This generation of Americans has been tested by crises that steeled our resolve and proved our resilience.A decade of war is now ending.An economic recovery has begun.America’s possibilities are limitless, for we possess all the qualities that this world without boundaries demands: youth and drive;diversity and openness;an endless capacity for risk and a gift for reinvention.My fellow Americans, we are made for this moment, and we will seize it – so long as we seize it together.这一代美国人经历了危机的考验，经济危机坚定了我们的决心，证明了我们的恢复力。长达十年的战争正在结束，经济的复苏已经开始。美国的可能性是无限的，因 为我们拥有当今没有边界的世界所需要的所有品质：年轻与活力、多样性与开放、无穷的冒险精神以及创造的天赋才能。我亲爱的同胞们，我们正是为此刻而生，我 们更要在此刻团结一致，抓住当下的机会。
For we, the people, understand that our country cannot succeed when a shrinking few do very well and a growing many barely make it.We believe that America’s prosperity must rest upon the broad shoulders of a rising middle class.We know that America thrives when every person can find independence and pride in their work;when the wages of honest labor liberate families from the brink of hardship.We are true to our creed when a little girl born into the bleakest poverty knows that she has the same chance to succeed as anybody else, because she is an American, she is free, and she is equal, not just in the eyes of God but also in our own.因为我们，美国人民，清楚如果只有不断萎缩的少数人群体获得成功，而大多数人不能成功，我们的国家就无法成功。我们相信，美国的繁荣必须建立在不断上升的 中产阶级的宽阔臂膀之上，我们知道美国的繁荣只有这样才能实现。只有当每个人都能找到工作中的自立与自豪时才能实现。只有当诚实劳动获得的薪水足够让家庭 摆脱困苦的悬崖时才能实现。我们忠诚于我们的事业，保证让一个出生于最贫穷环境中的小女孩都能知道，她有同其他所有人一样的成功机会。因为她是一个美国 人，她是自由的、平等的。她的自由平等不仅由上帝来见证，更由我们亲手保护。
We understand that outworn programs are inadequate to the needs of our time.We must harness new ideas and technology to remake our government, revamp our tax code, reform our schools, and empower our citizens with the skills they need to work harder, learn more, and reach higher.But while the means will change, our purpose endures: a nation that rewards the effort and determination of every single American.That is what this moment requires.That is what will give real meaning to our creed.我们知道，我们已然陈旧的程序不足以满足时代的需要。我们必须应用新理念和新技术重塑我们的政府，改进我们的税法，改革我们的学校，让我们的公民拥有他们 所需要的技能，更加努力地工作，学更多的知识，向更高处发展。这意味着变革，我们的目标是：国家可以奖励每个美国人的努力和果断。这是现在需要的。这将给我们的信条赋予真正的意义。
We, the people, still believe that every citizen deserves a basic measure of security and dignity.We must make the hard choices to reduce the cost of health care and the size of our deficit.But we reject the belief that America must choose between caring for the generation that built this country and investing in the generation that will build its future.For we remember the lessons of our past, when twilight years were spent in poverty, and parents of a child with a disability had nowhere to turn.We do not believe that in this country, freedom is reserved for the lucky, or happiness for the few.We recognize that no matter how responsibly we live our lives, any one of us, at any time, may face a job loss, or a sudden illness, or a home swept away in a terrible storm.The commitments we make to each other – through Medicare, and Medicaid, and Social Security – these things do not sap our initiative;they strengthen us.They do not make us a nation of takers;they free us to take the risks that make this country great.我们，人民，仍然认为，每个公民都应当获得基本的安全和尊严。我们必须做出艰难抉择，降低医疗成本，缩减赤字规模。但我们拒绝在照顾建设国家的这一代和投 资即将建设国家的下一代间做出选择。因为我们记得过去的教训：老年人的夕阳时光在贫困中度过，家有残障儿童的父母无处求助。我们相信，在这个国家，自由不 只是那些幸运儿的专属，或者说幸福只属于少数人。我们知道，不管我们怎样负责任地生活，我们任何人在任何时候都可能面临失业、突发疾病或住房被可怕的飓风 摧毁的风险。我们通过医疗保险、联邦医疗补助计划、社会保障项目向每个人做出承诺，这些不会让我们的创造力衰竭，而是会让我们更强大。这些不会让我们成为充满不劳而获者的国度，这些让我们敢于承担风险，让国家伟大。
第三篇：预设论文：奥巴马就职演说中的预设分析—从预设触发语的角度
预设论文：奥巴马就职演说中的预设分析—从预设触发语的角度
【中文摘要】预设是语言学中的一个重要研究议题,尤其是在其分支学科语用学和语义学中。德国哲学家弗莱格是第一位研究预设的学者,后来的学者们跟随着弗莱格的研究,对预设理论的相关议题存在着争议和认同。随着对预设理论的不断深入研究,学者们发现,出现的问题也越来越多,不能一蹴而就。正如莱文森所总结的：弗莱格关于预设的评论已经是90年前的事了,但我们仍旧只是理解了预设的一小部分,因此研究语义学和语用学是怎样相互作用的会是一个重要的议题。仔细观察语言,你会发现,我们使用的语言中充满了预设,预设无处不在。在与他人交流时,说话者喜欢预设信息,想当然的认为听话者也知道这些信息。人们预设的信息有时是事实性的,能够反映若干事实,有的预设能够反映之前一段时间的状态,而有的预设却是与事实相反的。当我们研究奥巴马总统的就职演说时,我们发现其中充满了预设。能够触发预设的词项和句法结构被称之为预设触发语。卡图南收集了三十一种预设触发语,莱文森主要讨论了其中的十三种触发语,在借鉴卡图南和莱文森的研究基础上,黄衍对预设触发语做了一些修补。莱文森和黄衍的预设触发语研究对本论文的研究都具有借鉴意义和价值。因此本篇论文的研究将结合二者的观点。本篇论文通过对预设触发语的统计分析,主要回答四个问题：即奥巴马总统就职演说中都用了哪些类型的预设触发语；使用频率最高的预设触发语是
哪些；为什么某些特定预设触发语比其他触发语使用频繁,而这些预设触发语又向我们传递了什么信息；通过对奥巴马总统就职演说中预设触发语的统计分析能否帮助我们确定就职演说的大体内容。论文的局限在于预设触发语是人工收集的,会有一些遗漏和错误收集。希望本文能促进预设理论的进一步发展并且让读者更好的理解奥巴马总统就职演说辞。
【英文摘要】Presupposition is an important research issue in linguistics, especially in its subfield of semantics and pragmatics.The first scholar who have explored this research area is the German philosopher Gottlob Frege(1892), and then followed his study, there have been debatings and agreements on the related issues concerning presupposition among scholars, and the more linguists have explored this area, the more they find that there appeared increasing problems that can not be solved at one go.Just as Levinson(1983, P.225)concluded, “presupposition remains, ninety years after Frege’s remarks on the subject, still only partially understood, and an important ground for the study of how semantics and pragmatics interact.” If you observe language carefully, you will find that the language we use is full of presuppositions, that is, presuppositions are ubiquitous.When communicating with others, the speakers usually take a lot for granted, most of the time
people presuppose information.Some of the information that people presupposed is factive, which can reflect several facts and some presuppositions can reflect the state of a previous time period, and some presuppositions are even conterfactual.When we examine the language used in President Barack Obama’s inaugural address, we also find that it is full of presuppositions.Lexical items and syntactical constructions that can trigger off presuppositions are called presupposition triggers.Karttunen(1971)has collected thirty-one kinds of presupposition triggers, and Levinson(1983)have mainly discussed thirteen kinds of presupposition triggers chosen from Karttunen’s collection.Based on their studies, Yan Huang(2009)has made some modifications on the classification of these presupposition triggers.In this thesis, we find that both Levinson and Yan Huang’s classification of presupposition triggers are valuable and meaningful, therefore the study in this thesis will be based on the combination of their views on presupposition triggers.In this thesis, through a statistical study of presupposition triggers, we mainly answer four questions, they are:what types of presupposition triggers are used in President Barack Obama’s inaugural address;which presupposition triggers are the most frequently used ones;why
some specific presupposition triggers are used more frequently than others and through these triggers what information can be conveyed to us;through a statistical analysis of the presupposition triggers used in President Barack Obama’s inaugural address, can this help us to determine the main idea of his address.However, our limitation in this thesis is that the presupposition triggers are detected manually, there may have some omissions or incorrect collections.It is hoped that this thesis will contribute to the further development of the presupposition theory and offer a better understanding of President Barack Obama’s inaugural address.【关键词】预设 预设触发语 就职演说
【英文关键词】Presupposition Presupposition Triggers Inaugural Address 【目录】奥巴马就职演说中的预设分析—从预设触发语的角度AbstractIntroductionStudy118-911-13
摘要10-11
Chapter One
1.1 Necessity and Significance of the
11-12
1.3 1.2 Objectives of the Thesis
1.4 Data Outline of the ThesisSource12-13Review13-36Presupposition
Chapter Two Literature
2.1 The Philosophical Origin of 13-15
2.2 Semantic Presupposition and
Entailment15-172.3 A Distinctive Feature of
17-18
2.4 Presupposition:Constancy under NegationPresupposition TriggersDescriptions18-19
18-25
2.4.1 Definite
19-20
2.4.3
2.4.2 Factive VerbsImplicative Verbs20
2.4.4 Change of State Verbs20-212.4.5 Iteratives
2.4.6 Verbs of Judging21-222.4.7 Temporal Clauses22
2.4.8 Cleft Sentences
22-23
2.4.9 Implicit Clefts with Stresses Constituents23
2.4.10 Comparison and Contrast232.4.11 Non-restrictive Relative Clauses23-242.4.12 Counterfactual Conditionals24
2.4.13 Questions
24-25
2.5 Yan Huang’s Classification of Presupposition Triggers25-272.5.1 Definite Descriptions25-26
2.5.2 Factive Predicates262.5.3 Aspectual/Change of State Predicates26
2.5.4 Iteratives
2.5.5 Implicative Predicates26
2.5.6 Temporal Clauses26-27
2.5.7 Cleft Sentences
2.5.8 Counterfactual Conditionals27
2.6 Beaver and Geurts’Collection of Presupposition Triggers27-29
2.6.1 Factives28
2.6.2 Aspectual Verbs28
2.6.3
s
Temporal Clauses282.6.4 Manner Adverbs282.6.5 Sortally Restricted Predicates of Various Categories28QuantifiersDescriptions28-2929
2.6.6 Cleft Sentences
2.6.8 Definite 2.6.9 Names29
2.6.10 28
2.6.7 Intonation29PresuppositionPresuppositionProblem31-32Projection ProblemAnalysis34-36
2.7 The Pragmatic Approach to 29-3630-31
2.7.1 Defeasibility of 2.7.2 The Projection
2.7.3 Karttunen’s Approaches to the 32-34
2.7.4 Gazdar’s Cancellation
Chapter Three Presupposition Analysis in
36-55
3.1 A Detailed Analysis Obama’s Inaugural Addressof the Presuppositions in Obama’s Inaugural Address36-54
3.2 The Frequency Distribution Table of Presupposition Triggers in Obama’s InauguralAddressConclusion55-58Thesis55-57Study57-58-63
54-55Chapter Four
4.1 Main Findings of the
4.2 Limitations and Suggestions for Further
References58-62
Acknowledgements62学位论文评阅及答辩情况表
第四篇：以美国总统奥巴马的就职演说为例对美国“清音浊化”进行研究
摘 要:文章以美国总统奥巴马的就职演说及其他VOA节目的录音为语料,对美国英语语流中词首[s]后的清音[p], [t], [k]的音变进行了声学分析。声谱图分析表明:美国英语语流中词首[s]后的[p],[ t], [k]在爆破之前声带并没有振动,爆破之时即出现元音共振峰纹样和基频曲线。声学分析表明美国英语语流中词首[s]后的[p], [t], [k]是非送气的清音,不是浊音。
关键词:美国英语 清音 浊化 VOT 声谱图
一、英语塞音的“清音浊化”
英语有六个塞音: [p], [t], [k], [b], [d], [g]。按照发音部位不同分为三组,每组又按发音时声带振动与否分为清浊。这六个音均可出现在词首、词中和词尾三个位置。出现在词首时, [p], [ t],[k]送气, [b], [d], [g]不送气。李桂荣认为清音浊化是指在发音时清辅音受到后面元音的影响从而改变了发音方式而变成浊辅音。认为元音的声带振动影响了前面的清辅音使之也成了声带振动的音。
[1]26李桂荣还对英语的爆破音(塞音),破擦音(塞擦音)进行了研究,认为美国英语中清音浊化现象更为普遍,而且无论在哪种英语中基本上都是语速越快,清音浊化现象越多。[1]30
PeterRoach以英国英语为研究对象进行研究后,指出英语语流中词首[s]后的[p], [t], [k]为非送气音,本族语人感知到的是[b], [d], [g]。而且,把录有sp, st, sk开头的单词的磁带剪掉[s]后播放,本族人感知到的仍是[b], [d],[g]。[2]33作者虽然没有说明此种情况声带是否振动,但作者却指出位于词首的[b], [d], [g]实际声带震动很微弱,只有在非常仔细、非常慢的语速下,声带才在整个持阻阶段振动,在语速快的时候声带根本就不振动。词首的[p], [t], [k]和[b], [d], [g]的区别不在清浊而在送气与否。[2]
32二、塞音的清浊之分和浊音起始时间VOT(Voice OnsetTime)
很多语言或者方言中都有清塞音和浊塞音的区分。形成塞音要经过成阻(closure phase)、持阻(hold phase)、除阻(release phase)和除阻后(post-release phase)四个阶段。[2]31一般说来,浊塞音的特征就是在闭塞持阻的阶段出现声带的振动,即是带音的。如果在这一阶段不出现声带振动,即不带音,就是清塞音。[3]120
VOT是专对塞音说的,即浊音起始时间(Voice OnsetTime),王士元译为“相对清浊度”。[4]76主要是指塞音除阻和声带颤动之间的时间关系,能比较精确地说明塞音的清浊和送气的情况,可以用上图
1(VoiceOnsetTime in closingand opening of vocal tract)来说明。[5]63以除阻时间点(pointof release)为数轴的0, 0之前时间为负值, 0之后时间为正值,VOT的单位通常用毫秒。如果塞音除阻之前声带就开始颤动,VOT为负值,为浊塞音,VOT的绝对值越大,浊音特点越明显;如果塞音除阻之后声带才开始颤动,VOT为正值,为清塞音,VOT的绝对值越大,送气程度越强;如果塞音在除阻时声带立即颤动,VOT为0,为不送气的清音。也就是说,只有VOT值为负值时,即在除阻前声带振动是浊塞音的重要特征之一。在语图上表现为冲直条(spike)之前在低频区域出现相对较淡的宽横杠(voiced bar)。辅音的清浊主要就表现在这条低频横杠的有无上。[6]81石锋在分析其他多名学者对塞音的研究后对塞音的清浊区别作了这样的说明:在开首位置上是浊音起始时间,送气程度,基频调型,后接元音的音长,相对音强等声学音征起作用。[3]127所以,判断英语语流中词首[s]后的[p], [ t], [k]是否浊化,需要考虑两个方面的声学特征,即VOT值和送气程度。我们可以借助宽带声谱图来看基频、塞音的冲直条、送气乱纹等的特点。本文所有语音材料均由praat软件录自VOA节目,采样频率22050Hz,最后再由praat做出语图进行分析。下列语图中的细线是音强曲线(50-100dB),粗线是基频曲线
(75-500Hz)。图2是美语“but”的宽带语图,该语图最明显的特征就是在冲直条(箭头所指处)出现之前,即[b]爆破之前,低频区域已有基频和谐音纹样,产生了浊音横杠(18.7709秒之后马上出现的阴影并非是浊音横杠,和基频曲线同时出现的条纹状的阴影才是浊音横杠),这是浊音的显著特点,VOT值为负,浊音听感也较明显。
但是必须指出的是,英语塞音[b], [d], [g]的浊化色彩并非十分突出。根据Harold T Edwards所提供的有关美国英语塞音的VOT数据显示, [b]的VOT值最小也只是-23.17msec, [d]的VOT值最小为-5.20msec,儿童所发的[d](dime)的VOT甚至是正值, [g]的VOT值最小为-0.08msec,儿童所发的[ g](goat)的VOT也是正值。[5]74-98所以,即使是我们所说的英语浊音[b], [d],[g],在实际的言语中,也并非所有人都是发浊音的。
我们接着看塞音的送气与否在声谱图上的各自表现。送气塞音所送出的气流表现为杂乱纹样,但比擦音乱纹分布广,一般也略淡一些。不送气塞音在声谱图上没有送气所表现出来的杂乱纹样,塞音的冲直条马上紧跟后面元音的共振峰纹样。图2中[b]除了具有爆破(箭头所指处)之前就有声带振动的VOT值为负的浊音特征外,同时[b]和后面的元音之间结合紧密,即证明[b]爆破之时没有送气;图3[p]的冲直条(箭头所指处)和后面的元音振动,即基频之间,还有一小段乱纹,那是送气声音的语图表现。塞音的送气与否即表现在这段杂乱纹样的有无上。本文从声谱图考察塞音的VOT值的正负和塞音的送气与否,以此研究美国英语语流中词首[s]+[p], [t], [k]中的清音的声学特点。
三、美国英语“清音浊化”现象的声学分析
依据praat所录的美国总统奥巴马的就职演说录音及VOA其他节目的录音,我们对美国英语语流中词首[s]后的塞音[p], [ t], [k]的声学特征如冲直条、宽横杠、VOT值、音强曲线的特点进行分析。下面,我们逐一分析各声谱图的语音表现。图4是英语“spend”的宽带语图,其起首处是紊音[s]形成的杂乱纹样,接着是塞音[p]的持阻阶段的空白间隔,然后才是[p]除阻之时释放能量而产生的冲直条(箭头所指处)。很明显,冲直条之前没有产生浊音横杠,浊音横杠在冲直条出现之时才产生, VOT值为零。同时,塞音[p]除阻之后,马上就出现了元音的共振峰纹样,出现了基频曲线。[p]和其后的元音之间连接紧密,没有出现送气音所具备的杂乱纹样,可见[p]爆破之时没有出现送气。所以,语流中的“spend”的[p]既不是浊音,也没有送气。
图5的英语“start”的宽带语图由紊音[s]的杂乱纹样开头,接着是[t]的持阻阶段所产生一段空白间隔,之后是塞音[t]除阻所产生的冲直条(箭头所指处),紧接着声带振动,产生了基频和共振峰。显然,[t]除阻之前是空白间隔,声带并没有振动。冲直条出现之后声带马上振动,虽然声谱图显示冲直条和基频之间还有一点空间,但并非乱纹,而是声带振动产生的谐波,VOT值仍为零。所以“start”中的[t]也并不是浊音。同时,和“spend”语图的[p]相似, [t]除阻之后即连接上后面元音的共振峰和基频曲线,之间并无送气音的杂乱纹样。所以[t]既不是浊音也不是送气音。
图6是采自奥巴马总统就职典礼演讲录音中的“skill”的宽带声谱图。和上述两个例子差不多,紊音
[s]的杂乱纹样之后是一段空白持阻时间,然后出现冲直条(箭头所指处),冲直条处音强有比较明显的变化,形成一个小峰。虽然冲直条稍后才出现基频,但是其低频区域已经有元音共振峰纹样,所以冲直条和元音的声带振动几乎是同时产生的,VOT仍为零。据此,“skill”中的[k]既不是浊音也不送气。
四、结论
根据以上的声谱图分析归纳,我们认为,美国英语语流中词首[s]后的[p], [t], [k]在其除阻之前声带没有振动,没有浊音横杠,所以它们并非是音变成浊音,所谓“清音浊化”的说法值得商榷。同时,美国英语语流中词首[s]后的[p], [t], [k]的冲直条出现时即出现基频曲线或者共振峰纹样,完全和送气音的纹样不同,VOT值由正值变为零,证明其都已经音变成非送气音了,其语感被同族人认为是[b],[d], [g]。所以,我们只能说美国英语语流中词首[s]后的[p], [ t], [k]具有“浊化的倾向”,并且已由送气音音变为非送气音。
参考文献:
[1] 李桂荣.英语语流中的语音语调[M]·北京:经济管理出版社, 2003·
[2] PeterRoach.英语语音学与音系学实用教程[M]·北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 2000·
[3] 石锋.语音学探微[M]·北京:北京大学出版社,1990·
[4] 王士元,彭刚.语言、语音与技术[M]·上海:上海教育出版社, 2006·
[5] Edwards, Harold T.Applied Phonetics: the sounds ofAmerican English [M]·San Diego: Singular Publish-ingGroup, Inc.1992·
[6] 林焘,王理嘉.语言学教程[M]·北京:北京大学出版社, 1992·
第五篇：美国总统奥巴马2010年开学英语演讲稿
Thank you!Hello!(Applause.)Thank you.Thank you.Well, hello, Philadelphia!(Applause.)And hello, Masterman.It is wonderful to see all of you.What a terrific introduction by Kelly.Give Kellya big round of applause.(Applause.)I was saying backstage that when I was in high school, I could not have done that.(Laughter.)I would have muffed it up somehow.So we are so proud of you and everything that you’ve done.And to all the students here, I’m thrilledto be here.谢谢！你们好！（掌声。）谢谢。谢谢。你好，费城！（掌声。）你好，马斯特曼。见到你们真是太好了。Kelly的介绍真是太棒了。让我们对Kelly报以热烈的掌声。在后台的时候我说，我上高中的时候我就做不这么好，我可能会弄的一团糟。所以让我们为你和你做的一切自豪吧。站在这里我很激动。
kelly 在奥巴马总统演讲前，一名叫Kelly的学生做了演讲。backstage n.后台
muff v.笨拙地处理，将事情弄糟 thrilled a.激动的
We’ve got a couple introductions I want to make.First of all, you’ve got the outstandinggovernor of Pennsylvania, Ed Rendell, in the house.(Applause.)The mayor of Philadelphia, Michael Nutter, is here.(Applause.)Congressman Chaka Fattah
我想介绍几个人。首先，来到这儿的有，杰出的宾夕法尼亚州州长，Ed Rendell。（掌声。）费城市长，is here.(Applause.)Congresswoman Allyson Schwartz is here.(Applause.)Your own principal, Marge Neff, is here.(Applause.)The schoolsuperintendent, Michael Nutter。国会议员Fattah和Allyson Schwartz（掌声）。你们的Arlene Ackerman, is here and doing a great job.(Applause.)And the Secretary of Education, Arne Duncan, is here.(Applause.)outstanding a.杰出的 Congressman n.国会议员 principal n.校长 superintendent n.院长
And I am here.(Applause.)And I am thrilled to be here.I am just so excited.I’ve heard such great things about what all of you are doing, both the students and the teachers and the staff here.Today is about welcoming all of you, and 校长Marge Neff（掌声）。学校管理人Arlene Ackerman是这个学校的，并且为学校做了很大的贡献。（掌声）。还有教育部秘书长Arne Duncan。（掌声）
还有我。（掌
声），我感到非常的激动。我耳闻了你们
做的那些伟大的事，这里面有在校的学生，老师和工作人员。
今天欢迎你们，all of America’s students, back to school, even though I know you’ve been in school for a little bit now.And I can’t think of a better place to do it than at Masterman.(Applause.)Because you are one of the best schools in Philadelphia.You are a leader in helping students succeed in the classroom.Just last week, you were recognized by a National Blue Ribbon--as a National Blue Ribbon School because of your record of achievement.And that is a testament to everybody here –-to the students, to the parents, to the teachers, to the school leaders.It’s an example of excellence that I hope communities across America can embrace.欢迎每一个美国学生回校上课，当然你们在学校已经呆了一段时间了。我想不出除了在Masterman外，还有哪个地方更适合做这件事。（掌声）因为你们是费城最好的学校之一。你们在教育方面是领头军。就在上周，由于你们的卓越贡献，被授为国家蓝丝带勋章。这是对每个人的见证，对学生，家长，老师还有学校领导人。我希望全美的社会团体都能欣然接受这个杰出代表的例子。
embrace vt.拥抱；接受
Over the past few weeks, Michelle
几周前，我和Michelle为
Sasha和Malia上学的事做准and I have been getting Sasha and Malia ready for school.And they’re 备。她们两个对这非常的期excited about it.I’ll bet they had the same feelings that you do--you’re a little sad to see the summer go, but you’re also excited about the
待。我敢打赌她们和你们一样，有着相同的感觉。你们为夏天的逝去而神伤，但是你们更应该期待新的一年。possibilities of a new year.The possibilities of building new friendships and strengthening old ones, of joining a school club, or trying out for a team.The possibilities of growing into a better student and a better person and making not just your family proud but making yourself proud.build friendships 结交新朋友
如你们可以结交新的朋友，加深同老朋友的感情，加入学校俱乐部，参加各种团队的选拔赛。成长为一个更优秀的学生和个人，不仅仅让你的家人自豪，同样让你们自己也很有成就感。
But I know some of you may also be
我知道，你们中有些
人在新学年会有些紧张。a little nervous about starting a new
或许你刚从小学升到初school year.Maybe you’re making the jump fromelementary to middle school, or from middle school to high school, and you’re worried about what that’s going to be like.Maybe you’re starting a new school.You’re not sure how you’ll like it, trying to figure out how you’re going to fit in.Or maybe you’re a senior, and you’re anxious about the whole college process;about where to apply and whether you canafford to go to college.elementary school n.小学 figure out 想明白，弄清楚
中，从初中升到高中，会担心，新的学年将会是什么样的呢。也许你进入一所新的学校，不知道是否会喜欢这个学校，想着怎么来融入这个学校。或许你到了高三年级，对整个的大学入学程序感到不安，比如申请那里的学校，能不能支付上大学的费用等等。fit in 融入，适应 afford to do 承担得起
除此之外，我知道你们还有来自困难时期的压know a lot of you are also feeling the strain of some difficult times.You 力。你们知道新闻内容，知道你们一些家庭中发发know what’s going on in the news and you also know what’s going on in some 生的事情。你们读过有关 And beyond all those concerns, I of your own families.You’ve read about the war in Afghanistan.You hear about the recession that we’ve been through.And sometimes maybe you’re seeing the worries in your parents’ faces or sense it in their voice.strain n.压力
So a lot of you as a consequence, because we’re going through a tough time a country, are having to act a lot older than you are.You got to be strong for your family while your brother or sister is serving overseas, or you’ve got to look after younger siblings while your mom is working that second shift.Or maybe some of you who are little bit older, you’re taking on a part-time job while your dad’s out of work.as a consequence 结果，所以
tough time 困难时期【tough a.艰难的】
所以，因为我们国家面临困难时期，你们许多人的行为看上去比实际年龄要大。姐姐哥哥在海外工作，你们会表现得坚强，或许妈妈去值第二班，你们就要照顾年幼的弟弟妹妹。或许你们有些人年长一点的，父亲失了业，你们还要做兼职。阿富汗战争的信息，听说过我们经历过的经济不景气。有时你们还看到了双亲脸上挂着的忧虑，或从他们的声音中感受到了这些。sibling n.兄弟姐妹，同胞 shift n.轮班
有太多事情要做了，很多是你们不应该做than you should have to handle.And it 的。这让你们迷茫，不may make you wonder at times what your
知道自己的未来会是什own future will look like, whether you’re
么样，在学校能不能取going to be able to succeed in school, And that’s a lot to handle.It’s more whether you should maybe set your sights a little lower, scale back your dreams.handle v.处理，应对 scale back 缩减
But I came to Masterman to tell all of you what I think you’re hearing from your principal and your superintendent, and from your parents and your teachers: Nobody gets to write yourdestiny but you.Your future is in your hands.Your life is what you make of it.And nothing--absolutely nothing--is beyond your reach, so long as you’re willing to dream big, so long as you’re willing to work hard.So long as you’re willing to stay focused on your education, there is not a single thing that any of you cannotaccomplish, not a single thing.I
但是，我来到马斯特曼，告诉你们一句话。我想这句话你们的校长、院长、父母以及老师都曾告诉过你们，那就是，没有人，只有你才能书写你自己的命运。未来在你自己手中，生活由自己缔造。只要志向远大，并努力为之奋斗，没有什么是不能得到的。只要你专注于学业，没有什么事不能实现的。我确信。
得好成绩，是不是应该把目光降低些，把理想放低些。believe that.destiny n.命运 accomplish v.完成
And that last part is absolutely essential, that part about really working hard in school, because an education has never been more important than it is today.I’m sure there are going to be times in the months ahead when you’re staying up late doing your homework orcramming for a test, or you’re dragging yourself out of bed on a rainy morning and you’re thinking, oh, boy, I wish maybe it was a snow day.(Laughter.)absolutely ad.绝对地
cram v.临时抱佛脚；吃得过饱
But let me tell you, what you’re doing
但是让我告诉你，你
所做的一切都是值得is worth it.There is nothing more 的。你们现在要做的事important than what you’re doing right now.Nothing is going to have as great an impact on your success in life as your education, how you’re doing in school.情无比重要。没有什么比你的受教育程度以及你在学校的所做之事更能决定你的成功。
最后这一点，在学校努力奋斗是必要的。因为教育从未像现在这样重要。我确信，几个月后会有一段时间，你们会完善熬夜写作业，为考试临时抱佛脚，或者在一个雨天的早晨把自己从被窝里拖出来，想，哦天，怎么不是下雪天？！（笑）
More and more, the kinds of
能否能抓住机遇，越来越opportunities that are open to you are 取决于你们在学校的努力。going to be determined by how far you go in school.The farther you go in school, the farther you’re going to go in life.And at a time when other countries are competing with us like never before, when students around the world in Beijing, China, or Bangalore, India, are working harder than ever, and doing better than ever, your success in school is not just going to determine your success, it’s going to determine America’s success in the 21st century.你们在学校的表现越好，生活中就能走得越远。当今，其他国家正与我们竞争，而且比以往任何时候都激烈。在中国北京或者印度邦加罗尔的学生比以前更加努力，而且比以前表现更好。你们在学校的成功并不只决定了自己一人的成功，还决定了美国在21世界是否能够成功。
So you’ve got an obligation to yourselves, and America has an obligation to you, to make sure you’re getting the best education possible.And making sure you get that kind of education is going to take all of us working hard and all of us working hand in hand.obligation n.责任，义务
所以，你们要承担起这样的责任和义务。同时国家也向你们承担责任和义务，那就是为你们提供最好的教育，为此我们要努力，共同奋斗。
It takes all of us in government--所有政府工作人员，从from the governor to the mayor to the 州长到市长，到院长，到总
统，所有人都要履行职责为superintendent to the President--all
我们的学生做好准备，帮助of us doing our part to prepare our students, all of them, for success in the classroom and in college and in a
他们在教室、在大学、在事业上取得成功。这就需要我career.It’s going to take an outstanding principal, like Principal Neff, and outstanding teachers like the ones you have here at Masterman--teachers who are going above and 们有一个杰出的校长，像校长Neff，和优秀的老师，正如你们的马斯特曼的老师们。老师们要履行好对学生所应担负起的责任。我也希beyond the call of duty for their 望家长负起责任。
students.And it’s going to take parents who are committed to your education.佳句欣赏
Nobody gets to write your destiny but you.Your future is in your hands.Your life is what you make of it.没有人，只有你才能书写你自己的命运。未来在你自己手中，生活由自己缔造。
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