国际贸易双语教案Chap024 (16)

第一篇：国际贸易双语教案Chap024 (16)

Chapter 15Multinationals and Migration: International Factor Movements A useful framework for understanding why MNEs exist stresses five elements.First, firms face inherent disadvantages in operating affiliates in foreign countries.Second, to overcome the disadvantages and to be successful with its FDI, a firm must have some firm-specific advantages not held by its local competitors in the foreign country.These advantages may be technologies, marketing assets, managerial capabilities, or access to large amounts of financial capital.Third, location factors, such as comparative advantage or government barriers to trade, influence where production should occur(export or FDI).Fourth, there may be advantages to using the firm’s advantages internally within the MNE, rather than incurring the transactions costs and risks of selling or renting these assets to independent firms(license or FDI).Fifth, FDI can be part of global oligopolistic rivalry.(The box on CEMEX shows the roles of firm-specific assets and oligopolistic rivalry in the growth of this MNE based in Mexico.)

The taxation of the profits of multinational firms raises important issues.Although the details are overwhelming, the general approach to how the profits are taxed is that the profits of the foreign affiliates are taxed by the host country and the profits of the parent company on its own activities are taxed by the home country.To minimize total taxes paid worldwide, multinationals can try to locate activities in low-tax countries.More controversially, multinational firms can use transfer pricing on transactions that occur within the global organization to show more of their profits in countries where they will be lightly taxed.Governments know this incentive.They often attempt to police transfer pricing to assure that transfer prices are similar to market prices, but this determination is often difficult, so the firms have some scope to manipulate transfer pricing.Multinational firms are active in international trade in goods and services, and about one-third of world trade is intra-firm trade between units of multinational firms in different countries.Although some FDI is a substitute for trade, because local production replaces products that otherwise would be imported, FDI and trade are also often complements.This is especially true when multinational firms exploit differences in comparative advantages by locating different stages of production in different countries.It can also be true when better local marketing by an affiliate leads to increased sales of some products that the multinational firm produces in other countries, even if other parts of the firm’s product line are produced locally by the affiliate.Most studies conclude that FDI overall is somewhat complementary to international trade in products.Economic analysis indicates that the home(or source)country can receive net benefits from its outward FDI, because the gains to the owners of the MNEs exceed the losses to workers and other providers of resource inputs.There are several other sources of possible loss to the home country.The government may lose tax revenues as profits are now shown in foreign affiliates.Positive externalities may be lost when the activities are shifted out of the country.The multinationals may gain too much influence over the country's foreign policies.While there are some arguments for the home county to tax or restrict outbound FDI, the actual policies of the major home countries are neutral to mildly supportive toward outward FDI.15-2 Chapter 15Multinationals and Migration: International Factor Movements The basic analysis of the effects of migration indicates that the receiving country gains economic well-being.There are several other possible effects of immigration.First, immigrants often bring external benefits through knowledge spillovers.Second, immigrants can bring external costs through increased congestion and crowding.Third, immigrants can raise social frictions based on bigotry, which can become severe during periods when the rate of immigration is high.In addition, in a number of receiving countries the fiscal effects of immigration have become increasingly controversial.The box “Are Immigrants a Fiscal Burden?” summarizes recent studies for the United States and Sweden.For a receiving country like the United States, the fiscal effects of immigration depend on whether providing government goods and services to the immigrants requires an expansion in spending on these goods and services, in order to maintain the same level of consumption value to natives in the country.Presumably, any transfer payments received by immigrants are an expansion of government expenditures, but the effects on other government goods and services are debatable.One way to examine this is to look at a snapshot for a single year.The net effect is not easy to determine.Another way to look at this is to examine the net effects over the entire lifetimes of immigrants and their descendants.One careful recent study of the United States concludes that the average net fiscal effect is slightly negative for the typical immigrant and substantially positive for the immigrant’s descendants.In addition, the study concludes that the net fiscal effect of the immigrant depends on the immigrant’s level of education, used as indicator of labor skill and earnings potential.Immigrants with a high school education or less impose a net cost;immigrants with some college provide a net benefit.Because the average education and earnings of immigrants has been declining relative to those of natives, for the United States since about 1980, the fiscal balance is probably shifting toward immigrants being a fiscal burden.The analysis has implications for the policies used by receiving countries to limit immigration.First, the types of immigrant admitted have an impact on which native group suffers loss.Second, the types of immigrants admitted have an impact on the net fiscal effects.To gain greater fiscal benefits(and to minimize the negative impact on low-skilled native workers who already have low earnings), the receiving country should skew its immigration policies to favor young adults with some college education.However, for countries like the United States, this would mean shifting away from other worthy goals pursued by their current immigration policies, including family reunification and assisting refugees.Tips

Figure 15.1 has quite a bit of information that can be used to generate class discussion, including the identity of the major home countries(why these are the major home countries?), the relatively small amount of FDI into developing countries and more generally what countries and regions host most FDI(why?), and the specific pattern of FDI for each home country(why?).Migration is a sensitive topic, and any presentation needs to keep its scientific standards up, by distinguishing what is known or plausibly estimated from what is common folklore.15-4 Chapter 15Multinationals and Migration: International Factor Movements

c.FDI.Additional purchases of ownership of a foreign company by the U.S.investor that then owns more than 10 percent of the foreign affiliate.d.The $100,000 is FDI, because the Brazilian affiliate is owned by the U.S.firm.The loan from the Brazilian bank is not FDI because it is not foreign, and because it is not direct(the Brazilian bank does not own equity in the Brazilian company).8.Labor groups seek restrictions on the flow of direct investment out of the United States because outward FDI tends to lower labor income.This reduction may occur for three major reasons.First, the FDI is shifting jobs out of the United States, so some U.S.workers lose as they become unemployed.Second, the general decrease in demand for labor puts downward pressure on wage rates.Third, the bargaining power of unionized labor is reduced when companies can threaten to shift production out of the United States.Unions cannot bargain so effectively to gain higher wages.Standard economic analysis shows that the losses to labor generally are more than offset by the gains to the owners of the companies undertaking the FDI.This standard analysis suggests that labor is mainly defending its special interest.But, there are other possible effects that would favor restricting outbound FDI in the national interest of the home country.The home government may lose tax revenue when profits are shown in foreign affiliates, and external technological benefits may shift out of the country.If these other effects are large enough, then the opposition of U.S.labor to outward FDI may also be in the national interest.10.First, in 1924, the United States passed a law that severely restricted immigration, using a system of quotas by national origin.Second, the Depression, with its very high rates of labor unemployment, probably reduced the economic incentive to immigrate, because potential immigrants would expect that it would be very difficult to find employment.12.The reduction in the annualized cost of migration would lead to more migration(the number of migrants would be greater than 20 million).In the new equilibrium, with a smaller gap(c), the wage rate after migration would be greater than $3.20 in the South, and less than $5.00 in the North.Each of the areas of gain and loss(a, b, d, e, and f)would be larger.14.This statement is probably false.The migrants do improve their economic well-being.But once they leave they are no longer part of the sending country.The sending country can lose in two ways.First, analysis of the labor-market effects of emigration indicates that, while workers remaining in the sending country gain, employers and others in the sending country lose more, so the net effect on the sending country is a loss.Second, the net fiscal effect of emigration is probably a loss for the sending country.The emigrants have often received education paid for by the government, but the emigrants shift to paying taxes to the receiving-country government once they leave.We should also note one major way that the sending country can gain—emigrants often send back remittances to relatives and friends.The overall effect on the sending country is then unclear, but a loss is likely unless remittances are large.15-6 Chapter 15-Multinationals and Migration: International Factor Movements 16.Here are several arguments.First, Japan is already a crowded place, with many Japanese living in densely populated metropolitan areas(especially Tokyo).Allowing more immigrants will add to the external costs of congestion, because most immigrants will want to live and work in urban areas.Second, increased immigration will add to social frictions.It will not be easy to change Japanese attitudes against foreigners.Instead, the immigrants are likely to face substantial discrimination based on prejudice.Japan’s policy must be decided with this reality in mind.Third, the immigrants easily could be a net fiscal burden.If the policy is not suitably selective, Japan will receive many immigrants who have little education and low labor skills.These immigrants will pay low taxes, but they will receive substantial benefits from Japanese government programs, including government-financed medical care.Fourth, the native groups that will lose from increased immigration include lower skilled Japanese workers who already have low earnings.The Japanese government should not institute a policy change that harms the least well off within the country, even if it might bring net gains to the country overall.15-7

第二篇：国际贸易双语教案Chap024 (15)（范文）

Chapter 14Trade Policies for Developing Countries

One possible approach to the problem of declining primary product prices is to form international cartels to raise their prices.OPEC did this for oil in the 1970s.The analysis of a cartel as a group that has monopoly power because it controls a large part of the world’s production indicates the limits to this power and why cartels usually erode over time.Demand becomes more elastic over time, new competing supplies from outside the cartel enter the market, increasing the noncartel supply elasticity and decreasing the cartel’s market share, and cheating by cartel members often increases over time.The oil price increase from 1999 through 2005 indicates that OPEC still has some power, but other factors also seem to be important in this price rise.Outside of oil, the prospects for even temporary success of primary product cartels seem poor, and there are currently no effective cartels.14-2 Chapter 14Trade Policies for Developing Countries

2.The four arguments in favor of ISI are the infant-industry argument, the developing-government argument, the chance to improve the terms of trade for a large importing country, and economizing on market information.The conditions under which ISI is likely to be better than alternative strategies include the following.First, being a large country is probably important, not only for the terms of trade effect, but also because a large domestic market makes it possible for a number of domestic firms to compete for sales while still achieving scale economies.Second, conditions favoring the maturing of infant industries, such as a trainable labor force or spillovers from technology brought into domestic production, are probably important.Third, it is probably useful for the government to have poor ability to raise revenues using more broadly based taxes, so that tariff revenues are important to the government budget.Fourth, it is probably useful that poor information makes evaluation of opportunities for successful export products difficult.ISI should be accompanied by investment in training and education, investment in domestic infrastructure such as roads and other domestic transportation facilities, and a competent and honest civil service.Two forces are likely to drive toward a deteriorating terms of trade—a decrease in the prices of the primary product exports relative to the prices of the manufactured good imports.First, the global demand for primary products is likely to rise more slowly than the global demand for manufactured goods will rise, as global incomes rise, because primary products have lower income elasticities of demand(Engel’s Law).Second, new synthetic substitutes are likely to be developed for some of the primary products, lowering global demand for the primary products.Two forces are likely to drive toward an improved terms of trade.First, natural limits could restrain global supply of some primary products.Second, slow growth in primary-product productivity is likely to limit cost decreases, so primary product prices do not fall as much as(or rise more than)the cost and prices of manufactures that experience more rapid productivity growth.In addition, more rapid quality improvements in manufactured products effectively increase the country’s terms of trade.4.14-4 Chapter 14-Trade Policies for Developing Countries

6.First, taxing exports of primary products could improve the country’s international terms of trade, if the country is large enough to affect international prices(the optimal export tax, the counterpart of the optimal import tariff presented in Chapter 8, and the national equivalent of the international cartel analyzed in this chapter).If there are net national gains, they are likely to be largest in the first years after the export tax is imposed, before the monopoly power of the country is eroded(in ways shown in the discussion of an international cartel).Second, taxing exports of primary products will induce resource reallocations to other production sectors, including manufactured goods that can replace imports and perhaps develop into new export industries.Third, the revenues from the export tax can be used to pay for national public goods like education and infrastructure.Or, these revenues can be used to subsidize infant industries that can develop into mature, internationally competitive industries in the future.Drawbacks loom large in practice.First, the country may lack monopoly power, in which case the export tax just distorts domestic resource allocation and creates deadweight losses.Second, the government often lacks information about which new industries to encourage.Third, the additional revenues are often siphoned off to the private wealth of government officials.The prediction is that the shift to an outward oriented policy will result in an increase in India’s growth rate, so that it is among the higher growth rates for developing countries.The data shown in Figure 14.1 is consistent with the prediction.India’s rate of growth of per capita GDP was 4.2 percent, among the higher growth rates shown for developing countries.8.10.a.Unilaterally taxing grain exports has the advantage of being collectible by a small customs staff at the nation’s major border crossings, as in the developing-government argument.The export-tax revenues could be invested in public goods such as health, education, and infrastructure, or they could be used to subsidize other promising sectors of the economy.However, Ukraine probably cannot force up the world price of grain, because it is not large enough, given severe competition from other grain exporters.So the export tax probably would cause only misallocation of domestic resources.b.An international grain cartel is politically unlikely and would break down almost immediately, given competition from suppliers that would stay outside the cartel and cheating by members of the cartel.c.This classic infant-industry argument has possibilities, but all of Chapter 10’s doubts about its wisdom are reinforced by this chapter’s recitation of the evidence about how poorly ISI has worked in practice.14-5

第三篇：国际贸易专业双语教学研究

国际贸易专业双语教学研究

摘要:国际贸易专业推行双语教学是顺应我国高等教育与国际接轨和改革发展和培养国际化高级人才的需要。本文从国际贸易专业的性质出发，分析了该专业实施双语教学的必要性。同时，对该专业实施双语教学的模式、目标体系以及教学实践环节进行探讨，以期能促进国际贸易专业双语教学工作的开展。

关键词:国际贸易;双语教学;教学方法

随着我国对外开放日益深入, 国际贸易规模飞速发展,市场对国际贸易的从业人员提出了更高的要求。从业人员不但要熟练贸易业务, 而且还要会外语。双语教学必须从源头、从学校抓起。国际贸易专业开展“双语教学”的目的不在于推进专业英文教学, 而是要培养学生成为在应用外语中更新知识、开拓视野, 在工作中更好地交流的“ 面向国际市场竞争、具备国际经营头脑”的国际商务参与者和管理者。

自2004 年大部分开设国际贸易专业的高校多在国际贸易课程中推行双语教学改革。在专业课程中推行双语教学，依据专业特点，课程在学生专业知识结构中的地位与作用，具体结合课程教学大纲，设置双语教学这种课堂组织形式的教育教学目标，从而选择适当的教学方法与技巧，使系统的专业知识学习与学生英语语言能力提高有机结合，达到更好的教学效果，应该是可行的思路，本文结合自己的教学体会，对这一问题做初步探讨。

一、国际贸易专业开展双语教学的必要性

1.推动“双语教学”是国际贸易专业适应我国教育教学改革的大环境的需要

2001年教育部颁发的《关于加强高等学校本科教学工作提高教学质量的意见》(教高字[2001]4号)中就提出，“本科教育要创造条件使用英语等外语进行公共课和专业课教学。对高新技术领域的生物技术、信息技术等专业,以及为适应我国加入WTO后需要的金融、贸易、法律等专业,更要先行一步,力争3年内,外语教学课程达到所开课程的5%-10%。” 2005年1月,教育部在《关于进一步加强高等学校本科教学工作的若干意见》(教高[2005]1号)文件中再一次明确提出“要提高双语教学课程的质量,继续扩大双语教学课程的数量”的要求。

2.国际贸易专业课推行双语教学是适应WTO的要求的需要

随着世界经济的一体化进程的加快与世界文化的融合,要求通过提高高校国际贸易学的双语教学,培养既有丰富专业知识,熟悉中国国情,又有较好外语水平,精通WTO规则和世界经济的国际化的人才。从这个意义上讲,国际贸易专业课双语教学势在必行。在国际贸易学专业推行“双语教学”的目的不在于推进专业英文教学,其真正目的在于培养学生――未来的商务人士、创业者,应用外语在工作中交流,或应用外语在专业上学习,更新知识,自我提高能够具备同合作伙伴、国际竞争对手沟通和对抗的能力,真正成为“面向国际市场竞争、具备国际经营头脑”的国际商务参与者和管理者。上述人才培养目标的实现,离不开与国际先进教学模式的接轨,离不开对西方先进管理思想与方法的研究和借鉴,更离不开英语这一国际贸易通用语言的运用和英语思维能力的培养。

二、国际贸易实务开展双语教学的主要模式

国际贸易实务的教学内容具有国际性, 其教学目标具有外向性的特点。国际贸易实务教学目标的涉外性和教学内容的国际性,决定了该课程进行双语教学的必要性。同时,国际贸易实务双语教学不仅是贸易全球化发展趋势的必然要求, 而且也是培养国际性、复合型经济人才的需要。具体而言,在实践中, 开展国际贸易实务存在三种模式。

1.简单渗透型

在国际贸易教学中以中文授课为主, 用英语讲授一些国际贸易术语, 并穿插使用一些常规的课堂用语, 学生的考试采用中文形式。这种模式对教师的英语水平要求不高, 适合英语基础和接受能力相对薄弱的学生。从教学效果上看, 学生容易形成系统的以中文为媒介的知识体系,而英文掌握的只是零散的一些专业词汇。双语教学的最高目标是在专业文献的使用上、专业实务具体操作上能够做到双语自由转换。这种双语教学模式由于中英两种语言的比重十分不平衡,教学过程中英文信息量不足,所培养的学生就其专业的英文知识而言十分有限, 很难达到双语教学的真正目标要求。这显然是简单渗透型的双语教学模式的不足之处。

2.过渡型(混合型)

在双语教学中以英语为主,采用英语板书和原版教材, 在英语授课的同时辅以中文解释和说明,学生的作业、考试用英语出题,但用中文回答。这是目前我国国际贸易双语教学中采用最多的一种模式,穿插过渡型双语教学模式的优点在于双语的比重趋向均衡,采用这种教学模式与上种模式相比,教学过程中的英语信息量有了明显增加,但是对教师和学生要求相对提高了,特别是学生必须具备较高的英文水平,否则很难感知英文教材,更难听懂英文讲授。

3.浸入型(全英语型)

在双语教学中基本上使用英语,采用原版专业教材,课堂板书用英文,学生的作业、考试用英文出题, 学生答题一般用英语。这种模式的特点是对教师和学生的外文水平都有较高的要求。

以上三种方式各有所长。浸没式双语教学让学生有一个很好的语言环境, 因此教学效果较好, 但是对老师和学生的要求都比较高, 尤其是语言环境的创造有诸多困难。过渡式双语教学将第二语言逐步引入教学全过程维持式双语教学则是将第二语言作为教学语言的同时, 继续用母语来维持学生理解的一种的教学模式, 这两种模式比较适合双语教学的起始阶段, 但母语与非母语的比重难以把握。在我们的教学实践中, 主要采用以英语浸没式教学法为主, 辅以参与法的教学模式。

三、国际贸易专业双语教学的目标体系

双语教学的目标体系是国际贸易专业教学目标的重要组成部分, 它包括双语教学的课程体系、双语教学的能力体系两大部分。双语教学的课程体系包括国贸专业知识、国贸专业英语素养两部分。双语教学的能力体系包括英语应用能力和社会适应能力两部分。

1.国际贸易专业双语教学的总目标

通过双语教学, 不仅要求学生掌握专业知识和英语技能, 更要重视学生对专业知识与英语技能的应用。通过本专业的学习, 学生将提高专业知识水平, 加深对国际贸易业务的理解；学会运用外语技能, 增强学生外贸业务的实践能力和创新能力；增强学生人际交往技能和团队意识；树立学生的自信心, 激发学生的潜能, 增强其就业竞争能力。

2.国际贸易专业双语教学课程目标

双语教学课程目标是双语教学目标体系的重要组成部分, 包括国贸专业知识、国贸专业英语素养两大部分, 它涵盖了国际贸易专业学生必修的全部专业知识课程。在双语教学安排上从两大块来完成这两部分的教学任务, 一部分国贸专业知识的中文讲授包含了五大主干课程, 另一部分国贸专业英语素养的双语讲授包含了四大主干课程。

双语教学课程的目标分类方法有利于教师实施课程标准, 使整个课程目标落到实处。双语教学的实施是在国贸专业知识掌握的基础上来开展的, 学生在学习相关专业知识的基础上进行国贸实务的双语学习, 将有助于学生的理解, 减少许多国贸专业词汇带来的学习障碍。

双语教学课程体系目标两大部分是互相联系的整体,每个部分各有侧重。国贸专业知识目标要求学生熟练掌握贸易理论、专业国贸知识和贸易惯例, 培养学生全球贸易观念, 掌握基本的国际贸易技能和方法。

3.国际贸易专业双语教学能力目标

双语教学能力体系目标主要指学生通过双语的学习所获得的用英语处理国贸实务的技能, 它包括英语应用能力和社会适应能力两大部分。实现双语教学能力体系目标, 一方面可通过校内实验室模拟国贸实务操作环境的测评、模拟国贸场景交易的测评、单证制作及审核测试、函电写作测试等来反映学生双语学习所获得的能力水平；另一方面也可通过校外的实训实习基地参与国贸实际业务各环节的实践来测评学生的社会适应能力。

四、国际贸易专业课堂双语教学的探讨

1.在教学组织中贯彻教育目标

涉外经济活动人才经常从事国际经济业务，有更多的时间和机会接触英语国家的思想观念，行为方式等。我门常常把培养国际性人才作为国际贸易专业人才培养的高境界，这是因为我们深知，在经济全球化日益形成的今天，以开放的心态面向世界的重要性。因此，在双语课教学中，我们应该首先树立学生“民族性最鲜明的，也最富有国际性”的观念，把我们国家处理国际经济、外交关系的基本原则贯穿于教学中，讲清楚社会、经济、文化进步中的开放与保持民族意识，民族认同感，民族自尊、自豪的关系，使我们的专业教育目标通过教学实现。

2.正确设立课堂教学目标，以专业知识为主线组织英文书面信息呈现，以母语为主，阐释复杂深奥观点

我们知道，课堂教学是实现课程教育教学目标的一个环节。专业课的双语教学不同于大学英语等公共英语课教学，语言只是工具。依据课程教学大纲，每一次课堂教学时间内，基本教学目标是掌握系统的专业知识，而不是形成英语的听说读写译等语言能力。为此，宜采用英文呈现有关专业知识的书面信息。

3.注意调动学生的积极性，破除学生害怕出错、不敢自由表达的畏惧心理，树立学生表达思想的信心

在第二语言不熟练，或者没有经常性使用时，每要表达一定意思，总会出现先出考虑语法对不对的现象，这样反而妨碍了思想的表达。为此，课堂上要鼓励学生大胆开口，不怕出错，凡不涉及基本概念，基本理论思想被曲解，就不纠正学生，尽量避免使用试错、负强化等教学手段，而是通过正强化，总结等方式来传达正确信息。

4.严格使用学习评估方法

兰伯特(Lambert)的态度/动机模式(attitude/motivation model)认为，在双语学习方面，性向和态度是两个重要的、相对独立的影响因素；双语学习不仅需要某种认知能力，而且需要一种积极的态度；态度关系到动机。因此，双语能力基于性向、态度、动机的程度以及态度与动机之间的关系。依据这种理论，双语教学应该采用英文试题进行考试，这样不仅能够使学生明确学习要求的严肃性，而且可以利用学生重视考试的心理，强化课堂学习的直接动机。

课堂教学组织技巧是教师使有组织的教育形式在明确的教学目标，有重点的内容组织，系统并赋予连贯性的师生互动下收到实际效果的主要途径，也是教师“教育艺术”的展示平台，各个教师可能有自己的独特做法和经验，但是，从整体上把握专业培养目标，把其作为处理教学中语言能力形成与系统专业知识讲述的大原则，有助于组织起知识传授与技能形成相融合的课堂教学环境。

参考文献：

[1]姜 瑾:双语教学面面观[J].天津外国语学院学报,2003,(1).[2]王振宇 邓 弘:国际贸易主干课程双语教学的思考[J].江西教育科研,2004.(3).[3]罗郑胜:国际经济与贸易专业（本科）培养目标及知识、能力、素质结构分析.郑州经济管理干部学院学报，2005(12).[4]石碧涛:双语教学实验环节探索―――以《国际贸易实务》为例[J].高教探索,2007(6).[5]马小辉:国际贸易专业双语教学实践及问题研究[J].黑龙江教育,2007,(4).[6]陈燕:国际贸易专业课推行双语教学的SWOT分析[J].甘肃联合大学学报(社会科学版).2008,(5).

第四篇：国际贸易双语教案Chap024 (14)（xiexiebang推荐）

Chapter 13Trade and the Environment

In our formal analysis we begin with the case in which pollution caused by an activity within the country has effects only on this country.We use tools similar to those that we developed in Chapter 10.If the country simply allows the pollution to occur, with no government policy to limit the negative externality, we show that free trade can make the country worse off, and that the country can export the wrong products.This occurs because of the marginal external costs, in our example resulting from pollution that accompanies domestic production of the export good.A government policy that taxes pollution or production that causes pollution(or that establishes suitable property rights)can reverse these effects, assuring that the country exports and imports the appropriate products and gains from free international trade.Domestic producers subject to the pollution-related tax may complain that other countries, especially the countries that become the suppliers of the country’s imports, are not imposing a comparable pollution-related tax on their firms.They may complain that the foreign firms are engaged in “eco-dumping.” From the perspective of the importing country, lax foreign controls should not matter to its well-being, as long as the foreign pollution does not affect it.The analysis of transborder pollution raises new issues.We use the example of production activity in one country that pollutes a river flowing into a neighboring country.The best solution would balance the gains to the polluting country from dumping waste into the river with the costs of pollution to the receiving country.Generally, this best solution is less pollution than the amount that occurs with no government policy, but more than zero pollution.However, the government in the polluting country may resist imposing a pollution tax(or some other way to limit pollution by its firms), because it bears the national costs while the other country gets the national benefits.If international negotiations fail, what should the receiving country do? It cannot tax the foreign pollution or even the foreign production that causes pollution.If the receiving country imports the product from the polluting country, it could try to reduce the foreign production and pollution by restricting its imports.The country will gain if its benefits from lower foreign pollution exceed the usual deadweight losses of protection.(If instead the receiving country is an exporter of this product to the polluting country, it could subsidize its exports.)However, the WTO generally interprets its environmental exceptions narrowly, so it is not clear that the WTO would uphold the import restriction(or export subsidy), if the polluting country complained to the WTO.The difficulty of addressing transborder pollution is also shown through a discussion of the slow progress that NAFTA has made in attempting to ameliorate environmental problems along the Mexico-U.S.border.13-2 Chapter 13Trade and the Environment The chapter concludes with the presentation of the results of a recent IMF study that estimates what a sensible global approach to global warming would look like.A policy response consistent with the specificity rule is to tax consumption(or production)of fossil fuels on a global scale.The IMF concludes that such a global approach could stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations at a reasonable level with only modest costs in terms of foregone production of regular products(results summarized in the new Figure 13.6).The economics are promising, so the challenge is negotiating such a global agreement.Tips

The material of this chapter lends itself to additional examples.The instructor can introduce extra material in lecture, in class handouts, or in additional readings.Some examples include the threat to the marine population of the Galapagos, water quality and air quality along the Rio Grande, the U.S.diversion of water in the Colorado River before it gets to Mexico, or the paper factory in Uruguay that is opposed by Argentina.You may also find useful global data available on the Web site of the World Resources Institute, cited in Appendix A of the textbook.As interesting examples are included in the discussion, we recommend keeping economic principles in full view.It is useful to remind students that:  incentive distortions and imperfect property rights are crucial causes of environmental problems, whether these problems are international or not; there are two basic policy approaches—the(Pigovian)tax-and-subsidy approach, and the(Coasian)property-rights approach; we keep discovering new uses for the specificity rule introduced in Chapter 10;and  this rule almost never recommends trade policy as a first-best approach to environmental problems.An instructor may want to consider an assignment in which students(working individually or in groups)report on a country’s environmental problems and policies or report on an international environmental issue.Suggested answers to questions and problems(in the textbook)2.Disagree.The distortion caused by pollution is the result of the difference between the private costs and the social costs of the activity that creates the pollution.Because the person choosing to take an action that creates pollution does not care about the external costs of the pollution, he tends to create too much pollution.Free trade does not alter the fact the there will remain a gap between private cost and the social cost(inclusive of the cost of pollution).13-4 Chapter 13Trade and the Environment 10.The success of the Montreal Convention in limiting CFCs was largely due to these facts:(a)the scientific evidence that CFCs were depleting the ozone was clear;(b)relatively few countries and companies accounted for most of the world’s production of CFCs, limiting the number of negotiating parties;(c)these countries are located at high latitudes, where the danger of ozone depletion was greatest;(d)these countries are rich and therefore relatively willing to make economic sacrifices to protect the environment;and(e)reasonable substitutes for CFCs became available.The conditions surrounding the emission of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases are not as favorable.The science that links greenhouse gases to global warming and its effects is less certain.The burning of fossil fuels does concentrate somewhat in the richer countries, especially the United States, but all countries burn fuels and release greenhouse gases, and the emissions are growing fastest in some of the developing countries.There are no reasonable and acceptable substitutes that can be used on a large scale to replace the burning of fossil fuels for energy and heat.Because the conditions are less favorable, the negotiations over an agreement to limit the emission of greenhouse gases have been relatively unproductive.13-6

第五篇：双语教案

来自九年义务教育初中化学教科书

Properties of Carbon Dioxide

Outline: 1.physical properties of carbon dioxide 2.chemical properties of carbon dioxide 3.Uses of carbon dioxide

15化学1班

谭雪锋 2015364138 2017/4/21Good morning, everyone.Welcome to my classroom.Let’susknow an important gas.Every day we need to breath, what is gas of breath outside? Can you guess it, my dear student?

Yes, it is carbon dioxide.Carbon Dioxide is important for living things, so what important properties does it have? Who can tell me its physical properties?(As some students said, it is…colourless)First,Look at the picture.When carbon dioxide is poured into a paper bag.Watch if the two paper bags still balance.Why?From the experiment we know that carbon dioxide is a colorless gas and the bag fill with carbon dioxide is tilted, which shows carbon dioxide has a higher density than air.That is reason why… Besides,Usually,about 1 volume of carbon dioxide dissolve in 1 volume of water.My dear, look at the experiment.Place two burning candles on each of a 2-step holder made of a galvanized iron sheet.Put the holder inside a beaker(as shown in picture)and pour carbon dioxide along the beaker’s wall.Pay attention to what happens to the burning candles when the carbon dioxide is poured.What does the experiment show? Who can tell me? In the experiment, the candle flame go out.And the candle on the lower step goes out first.The experiment show two things:first, carbon dioxide does not burn, nor help burning;second, carbon dioxide has a bigger density than air.After learn many properties of carbon dioxide,you may be a little tired.Now,let’s enjoy the interesting experiment.Bubble carbon dioxide into a test tube filled with a solution of purple litmus.Watch how litmus solution changes color.After that, heated it and watch again the litmus changes color.After watch the video, we can easily know the color changed red.Why it can change red? Who knows?(that is because carbon dioxide dissolves in water to form carbonic acid(H2CO3)).Good jod!

Ok, let’s continue to watch.When carbon dioxide is blown into a clear limewater, what does it will be? Who can tell me why?(clear limewater become cloudy, because white precipitates of calcium carbonate are made)Yes,you are right.After know about physical and chemical properties of carbon dioxide, we need to know about its uses.As we know, carbon dioxide is used for put out fires.it is also used in industry for manufacture.and gas fertilizer.Moreover, dry ice can be used to preserve food or artificial rainfall.Last but not important, plants need carbon dioxide during photosynthesis.Finally, let’s us do a summary.At this calss, we know about carbon dioxide’s physical properties and chemical properties.Besides, we also know the uses of carbon dioxide.and many interesting experiments.Class is over, thank you!