参考文献中MLA格式规范（5篇）

第一篇：参考文献中MLA格式规范

MLA格式简要规范

MLA格式简要规范

1.独著

姓，名.书名.出版地: 出版社, 出版年代.Bambrough, New York: The New American Library, 1963.2.两至三名作者

姓，名, 名姓, and 名姓.书名.出版地: 出版社, 出版年代.Horton, Rod W., and Herbert W.3.四名或以上作者

姓，名,et al..出版地: 出版社, 出版年代.4.机构作者

机构名称.书名.出版地: 出版社, 出版年代.American Psychological Association.1994.5.匿名作者

.出版地: 出版社, 出版年代.6.同一作者两本以上著作

以书名第一个主要单词的首字母顺序排列先后，作者的姓名放在第一条文献条目前，第二条文献条目前用三个连字号。

Bloom, Harold.New York: Oxford University Press, 1973.7.编著

一名编者:

姓, 名, ed..出版地: 出版社, 出版年.Frye, Northrop, ed.New York: Columbia University Press, 1963.两名编者:

姓, 名, and 名姓, eds..出版地: 出版社, 出版年.三名以上的编者:

第一编者姓, 名, et al.出版地: 出版社, 出版年.University Press, 1986.8.译著

原作者姓, 名.译者名姓.出版地: 出版社, 出版年.Norton, 1961.9.再版著作

姓，名.版别序号 ed.出版地: 出版社, 出版年代.Fromkin, Victoria, and Robert Rodman.5th ed.Ft.Worth: Harcourt, 1993.10.论文集中的文章

文章作者姓, 名.“文章标题.”.Ed.论文集编者名姓.出版地: 出版社, 出版年代.起始页码.Wellek, Rene.“Romanticism RE-examined.” Ed.Northrop Frye.New York: Columbia University Press, 1963.75-98.Hall, Stuart, “Minial Selves.” Arnold: Hodder Headline Group, 1993.131-42.11.多卷或多册著作，书名后注明第几册或第几卷.姓, 名.书名.卷目 vols.(其他信息).出版地: 出版社, 出版年代.Plato.2 vols.Trans.R.G.Bury.Leob Classical Libery.New York: G.P.Putnam's Sons, 1926.12.前言，后记

前言作者姓，名.“Introduction(或Forewords 或 Preface).” 书名.By 书目作者名姓.出版地: 出版社, 出版年代.前言起始页码.后记作者姓，名.“Afterwords.” 书名.By 书目作者名姓.出版地: 出版社, 出版年代.后记起始页码.Schlesinger, Arthur M., Jr.“Introduction.”

13.期刊文章

文章作者姓, 名.“文章标题.” 卷号.期号(出版年代): 起始页码.Maguire, James H.“The Canon and the 'Diminished Thing.”(1988): 645-52.Davis, Sherri Heckler.“The Zen Art of Prewriting.” 1(1988): 21-23.14.周刊或双周刊文章

文章作者姓, 名.“文章标题.” 出版日月年: 起始页码.Hoagland, Edward.“Standing Tough in the Desert.” May 1989: 44-45.15.月刊或双月刊文章

文章作者姓, 名.“文章标题.” 出版月年: 起始页码.January 1994: 37-56.16.报纸文章

文章作者姓, 名.“文章标题.” 出版日月年, 版, 栏, 页码.Intraub, Anna Jinagwang.“How I learned to Read.” 13 January 2002, Section 4, Column 6, Page 16.如果作者未知, 版栏信息缺失, 格式为:

“文章标题.” 报纸名称 出版日月年: 页码.“Learn English through Football.”

17.网络著作

作者姓, 名.出版年代.检索日月年 <详细网址>.Emerson, Ralph Waldo.1841.12 February 1997.<,1998-08-16/1998-10-04

第二篇：MLA格式

Hua Su

Political Science 101, Section009

Professor Dighton M.FiddnerMarch 2010

Brief Analysis of Cuban Missile Crisis

I think the people who have at least a little bit concern about the world issues should know the famous Cuban Missile Crisis.It has being discussed and studied over and over again by many scientists, scholars and experts since it happened.On October 15, 1962, United States reconnaissance discovered and had photos to prove that there were missile bases being built in Cuba.“One of the most startling of the thousands of photographs---some 30,000 feet of film in all---analyzed by the President and his advisers is this one of a fully operating medium-range missile base, manned by Russian technicians and able to shoot its missiles as far into the U.S.as Norfolk or Houston “(The Pictures That Spurred Us to Act)”.The next day, the president of United States was informed and organized a group of advisors, which is called Executive Committee of the National Security Council, short for EXCOMM, to discuss how to deal with this perilous event.In Cuba at that time, the government was led by communist Fidel Castro.He was afraid that the United States would attack Cuba again after the failure of the Bay of Pigs invasion.So he agreed that Soviet Union, which was led by Nikita Khrushchev at that time, could put missiles in Cuba.Because Cuba and United States are so close to each other, the missiles in Cuba were

big threat to US.After several days of discussion, the government of Kennedy imposed a naval quarantine around Cuba and demanded that the Soviet Union removed the missiles from Cuba.After a series of negotiations between the United States, Soviet Union and Cuba, on October 28, 1962, the crisis eased after a no-invasion agreement was reached and the Soviet Union agreed to dismantle the missiles.I think it will be best for me to explain this significant event using the interstate level of analysis and the theory of realism.Interstate level of analysis contains several categories which influence the Cuban missile crisis obviously.Power is the most apparent influence.Just like Cuban, Soviet and United States all competed and threatened each other with their military power.And between Cuba and Soviet Union, they formed an alliance against United States.During the crisis, IGOs, summit meetings, each side’s diplomacy and the bargaining happening among their negotiations all had important influences which should not be forgotten.Power is the ability to get someone to do what it would not otherwise have done(or not to do what it would have done)(Goldstein et al.).United States at that time could not stand that there is a communist country located so close to it.So a CIA trained force tried to overthrow the government of Fidel Castro on April 17, 1961.But it turned out a failure.After the Bay of Pigs invasion, Cuba found out that only by increasing its own power can it prevent another United States’ invasion.And, improvement of its military power is the best way.At that time, the biggest and

strongest communist country was Soviet Union.It possessed nuclear weapons.That was also the time when the United States and the Soviet Union were the major participants of the Cold War.They competed with each other in the fields of politics, military, economy, etc.Cuba is located only several miles away from Florida.So, it would be a great threat to the United States by placing nuclear missiles on the island of Cuba and at the same time prevent the United States from starting another invasion of Cuba.Cuba agreed the nuclear missiles building is for the sake of its sovereignty, territory and organization of governing.As for the Soviet Union, the reason is its diplomatic recognition.They all did it for their own interests.During the event, in order to prevent the Soviet Union from shipping more nuclear missiles devices to Cuba, the United States blocked the sea around the island of Cuba.But, the United States actually had no right to do the quarantine.United States’ quarantine against Cuba, in my opinion, was realism.Every nation has its right to possess its weapon for defense.It is against the international law, the United Nation’s Charter and the right of passage in international waters.The United States’ action had implied that there is no central organizing authority in the international politics.Every entity seeks its self-interests.The United States has reported that the nuclear missiles which were being placed in Cuba were seriously offensive(The Pictures That Spurred Us to Act).So in order to keep its national security under control, the United States chose to use quarantine.And this quarantine greatly related to the power of the United States.It had strong economic and military power so that this restrict quarantine can be forced.The United Nations had noticed the possibility that the conflict between these two super powers could lead to a nuclear war which would be a huge disaster.So the United Nations was negotiating with these three nations trying to ease the tension.“The break in the crisis came on Sunday, October 28, when the Soviet Government finally agreed to dismantle its offensive weapons in Cuba and return them to the Soviet Union subject to United Nations’ verification”(GlobalSecurity.org).When the United States, the Soviet Union and Cuba were negotiating with each other, there was a lot of bargaining going on between them.There were a lot of letters and communications being exchanged between Khrushchev and Kennedy:

On October 23 and 24, Khrushchev sent letters to Kennedy indicating

the deterrent nature of the missiles in Cuba and the peaceful intentions of

the Soviet Union.On October 26, Khrushchev sent Kennedy a long

rambling letter seemingly proposing that the missile installations would

be dismantled and personnel removed in exchange for United States

assurances that it or its proxies would not invade Cuba.On October 27,another letter to Kennedy arrived from Khrushchev, suggesting that

missile installations in Cuba would be dismantled if the United States

dismantled its missile installations in Turkey(Cold War: Cuban Missile

Crisis).However the United States did agree the Soviet Union to remove the Jupiter missiles in Turkey.Just at that time this agreement didn’t go public.At the same time, the United States agreed to sign an agreement that promised not to invade Cuba.So

we can tell from the information that the Soviet Union and the United States both were bargaining about their preferred outcomes.And the Soviet Union had achieved its two main goals.Asking the United States to remove the Jupiter missile in Turkey was for the sake of its national security;and forming an agreement which the United States would not invade Cuba was for its diplomatic recognition.Because at that time, the world media did not report the news that the United States had already agreed to remove the Jupiter missile in Turkey and, which was very obvious that the Soviet Union had already removed its missile in Cuba.In public, it seemed that the Soviet Union lost and the United States won.However in reality, they both made concessions.I basically used the theory of realism and the interstate level of analysis to explain my point of view toward this event.And I pointed out a couple of key influences of the Cuban missile crisis, like the theory of power, UN’s interference, bargaining, summit meeting etc.In my point of view, these are the major factors I should think of when it comes to analyze the Cuban missile crisis.This Cuban missile crisis makes the world realize that how close we are to a nuclear war and how important the non-proliferation of nuclear weapons is for the people around the world.We cannot afford the price of starting WWIII.So the best way to avoid it is to know, learn and study the possible causes and try to predict the outcome of complicated international event.Works Cited

“The Pictures That Spurred Us to Act).” Life(1962): 38-41.Print.Goldstein, Joshua S., and Jon C.Pevehouse.“Power.” International Relations.7th ed.Priscilla McGeehon, 2006.57-58.Print.“Cuban Missile Crisis.” GlobalSecurity.org.Web.20 Mar.2010.“Cold War: Cuban Missile Crisis.” Library of Congress.Web.20 Mar.2010.“Vienna Summit.” Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia.Web.20 Mar.2010.

第三篇：MLA格式说明

MLA 2009 Formatting and Style Guide

General Format

MLA style specifies guidelines for formatting manuscripts and using the English language in writing.MLA style also provides writers with a system for referencing their sources through parenthetical citation in their essays and Works Cited pages.Writers who properly use MLA also build their credibility by demonstrating accountability to their source material.Most importantly, the use of MLA style can protect writers from accusations of plagiarism, which is the purposeful or accidental uncredited use of source material by other writers.If you are asked to use MLA format, be sure to consult the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers(7th edition).Publishing scholars and graduate students should also consult the MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing(3rd edition).The MLA Handbook is available in most writing centers and reference libraries;it is also widely available in bookstores, libraries, and at the MLA web site.See the Additional Resources section of this handout for a list of helpful books and sites about using MLA style.For an overview of the 2009 guideline changes, please visit the OWL's MLA Update 2009 resource.Paper Format

The preparation of papers and manuscripts in MLA style is covered in chapter four of the MLA Handbook, and chapter four of the MLA Style Manual.Below are some basic guidelines for formatting a paper in MLA style.General Guidelines

white 8.5 x 11-inch paper. Double-space the text of your paper, and use a legible font(e.g.Times New Roman).Whatever font you choose, MLA recommends that the regular and italics type styles contrast enough that they are recognizable one from another.The font size should be 12 pt. Leave only one space after periods or other punctuation marks(unless otherwise instructed by your instructor). Set the margins of your document to 1 inch on all sides. Indent the first line of paragraphs one half-inch from the left margin.MLA recommends that you use the Tab key as opposed to pushing the Space Bar five times. Create a header that numbers all pages consecutively in the upper right-hand corner, one-half inch from the top and flush with the right margin.(Note: Your instructor may ask that you omit the number on your first page.Always follow your instructor's guidelines.)

 Use italics throughout your essay for the titles of longer works and, only when absolutely necessary, providing emphasis. Type your paper on a computer and print it out on standard,before your Works Cited page.Entitle the section Notes(centered, unformatted).Formatting the First Page of Your Paper  If you have any endnotes, include them on a separate page

Do not make a title page for your paper unless specifically requested.your instructor's name, the course, and the date.Again, be sure to use double-spaced text. Double space again and center the title.Do not underline, italicize, or place your title in quotation marks;write the title in Title Case(standard capitalization), not in all capital letters. Use quotation marks and/or italics when referring to other works in your title, just as you would in your text: Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas as Morality Play;Human Weariness in “After Apple Picking”

 Double space between the title and the first line of the text. Create a header in the upper right-hand corner that includes your last name, followed by a space with a page number;number all pages consecutively with Arabic numerals(1, 2, 3, 4, etc.), one-half inch from the top and flush with the right margin.(Note: Your instructor or other readers may ask that you omit last name/page number header on your first page.Always follow instructor guidelines.)Here is a sample of the top half of a first page in MLA style: A sample first page of an MLA-formatted paper.Section Headings

Writers sometimes use Section Headings to improve a document’s readability.These sections may include individual chapters or other named parts of a book or essay.Essays

MLA recommends that when you divide an essay into sections that you number those sections with an arabic number and a period followed by a space and the section name.1.Early Writings 2.The London Years 3.Traveling the Continent 4.Final Years

Books

MLA does not have a prescribed system of headings for books.If you are only using one level of headings, meaning that all of the sections are distinct and parallel and have no additional sections that fit within them, MLA recommends that these sections resemble In the upper left-hand corner of the first page, list your name,one another grammatically.For instance, if your headings are typically short phrases, make all of the headings short phrases(and not, for example, full sentences).Otherwise, the formatting is up to you.It should, however, be consistent throughout the document.If you employ multiple levels of headings(some of your sections have sections within sections), you may want to provide a key of your chosen level headings and their formatting to your instructor or editor.Sample Section Headings

The following sample headings are meant to be used only as a reference.You may employ whatever system of formatting that works best for you so long as it remains consistent throughout the document.Numbered:

1.Soil Conservation 1.1 Erosion 1.2 Terracing 2.Water Conservation 3.Energy Conservation

Formatted, unnumbered:

Level 1 Heading: bold, flush left

Level 2 Heading: italics, flush left

Level 3 Heading: centered, bold

Level 4 Heading: centered, italics How to Cite the Purdue OWL in MLA:

Entire Website

The Purdue OWL.Purdue U Writing Lab, 2008.Web.27 Dec.2008.Individual Resources

Purdue OWL.“MLA Formatting and Style Guide.” The Purdue OWL.Purdue U Writing Lab, 10 May 2008.Web.15 Nov.2008.All Sections in MLA 2009 Formatting and Style Guide:

1.MLA 2009 Formatting and Style Guide2.MLA 2009 In-Text Citations: The Basics3.MLA 2009 Formatting Quotations4.MLA 2009 Footnotes and Endnotes

5.MLA 2009 Works Cited Page: Basic Format6.MLA 2009 Works Cited Page: Books7.MLA 2009 Works Cited: Periodicals8.MLA 2009 Works Cited: Electronic Sources(Web Publications)9.MLA 2009 Works Cited: Other Common Sources10.MLA 2009 Additional Resources11.MLA 2009 Abbreviations12.MLA 2009 Sample Works Cited Page13.MLA 2009 Sample Papers14.MLA 2009 Tables, Figures, and Examples15.MLA 2009 PowerPoint Presentation16.MLA 2009 Undergraduate Sample Paper

第四篇：外文文献注释规范

外文文献注释规范

引证外文文献，原则上以该文种通行的引证标注方式为准。

引证英文文献的标注项目与顺序与中文相同。责任者与题名间用英文逗号，著作题名为斜体，析出文献题名为正体加英文引号，出版日期为全数字标注，责任方式、卷册、页码等用英文缩略方式；期刊文章题名为正体加英文引号，登载的刊物题名为斜体。

单页为p.79.两页以上为pp.79-90.两个p

示例1：专著

Randolph Starn and Loren Partridge, The Arts of Power: Three Halls of State in Italy, 1300-1600, Berkeley: California University Press, 1992, pp.19-28.示例2： 译著

M.Polo, The Travels of Marco Polo, trans.by William Marsden,Hertfordshire: Cumberland House, 1997, pp.55, 88.示例3： 主编

T.H.Aston and C.H.E.Phlipin(eds.), The Brenner Debate.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985, p.35.示例4： 析出文献

R.S.Schfield, “The Impact of Scarcity and Plenty on Population Change in England,” in R.I.Rotberg and T.K.Rabb(eds.), Hunger and History: The Impact of Changing Food Production and Consumption Pattern on Societ，Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983, p.79.示例5： 期刊

Heath B.Chamberlain, “On the Search for Civil Society in China”, Modern China, vol.19, no.2(April 1993), pp.199-215.

第五篇：文献综述的撰写规范及

文献综述的撰写 文献综述的概念及作用 1.1．文献综述的概念

文献综述是对某一学科、专业或专题的大量文献进行整理筛选、分析研究和综合提炼而成的一种学术论文，是高度浓缩的文献产品。根据其涉及的内容范围不同，综述可分为综合性综述和专题性综述两种类型。所谓综合性综述是以一个学科或专业为对象，而专题性综述则是以一个论题为对象的。

文献综述反映当前某一领域中某分支学科或重要专题的历史现状、最新进展、学术见解和建议，它往往能反映出有关问题的新动态、新趋势、新水平、新原理和新技术等等。文献综述是针对某一研究领域分析和描述前人已经做了哪些工作，进展到何程度，要求对国内外相关研究的动态、前沿性问题做出较详细的综述，并提供参考文献。作者一般不在其中发表个人见解和建议，也不做任何评论，只是客观概括地反映事实。1.2．文献综述的作用

文献综述在于高度浓缩了几十篇甚至上百篇散乱无序的同类文献之成果与存在问题或争论焦点，对其进行了归纳整理，使之达到了条理化和系统化的程度。它不仅为科研工作者完成科研工作的前期劳动节省了用于查阅分折文献的大量宝贵时间，而且还非常有助于科研人员借鉴他人成果、把握主攻方向以及领导者进行科学决策。1.3．学写文献综述的意义

(1)通过搜集文献资料过程，可进一步熟悉科学文献的查找方法和资料的积累方法；在查找的过程中同时也扩大了知识面；

(2)查找文献资料、写文献综述是科研选题及进行科研的第一步，因此学习文献综述的撰写也是为今后科研活动打基础的过程；

(3)通过综述的写作过程，能提高归纳、分析、综合能力，有利于独立工作能力和科研能力的提高；(4)文献综述选题范围广，题目可大可小，可难可易。对于毕业设计的课题综述，则要结合课题的性质进行书写。

文献综述与“读书报告”、“文献复习”、“研究进展”等有相似的地方，它们都是从某一方面的专题研究论文或报告中归纳出来的。但是，文献综述既不象“读书报告”、“文献复习”那样，单纯把一级文献客观地归纳报告，也不象“研究进展”那样只讲科学进程，其特点是“综”，“综”是要求对文献资料进行综合分析、归纳整理，使材料更精练明确、更有逻辑层次；“述”就是要求对综合整理后的文献进行比较专门的、全面的、深入的、系统的论述。总之，文献综述是作者对某一方面问题的历史背景、前人工作、争论焦点、研究现状和发展前景等内容进行评论的科学性论文。2．文献综述的选题与文献资料的搜集 2.1．选题原则

(1)结合所学知识选自己专长的或有基础的题目，否则难以写出水平较高的综述。(2)根据所占有文献资料的质和量选题。

(3)选题一定要能反映出新的学科矛盾的焦点、新成果、新动向。

(4)题目不宜过大、范围不宜过宽。这样查阅文献的数量相对较小，撰写时易于归纳整理，否则，题目选得过大，查阅文献花费的时间太多，影响实习，而且归纳整理困难，最后写出的综述大题小作或是文不对题。2.2．文献资料的搜集

(1)文献资料的搜集途径

A、利用有关的检索工具（包括目录、文摘和索引等）搜集文献资料。

B、利用国际联机检索系统搜集文献资料。

C、利用原始文献（包括专业期刊、科技报告、专利文献、学位论文、会议文献、专著和标准等）搜集文献资料。D、利用三次文献（包括综述、述评、百科全书、年鉴和手册等）搜集文献资料。E、通过Interent网和光盘数据库搜集文献资料。(2)文献资料的搜集方法

前面几章讲述的内容，就是告诉我们搜集、查找Internet网络资源和各种数据库中文献资料。3．格式与写法

文献综述的格式与一般研究性论文的格式有所不同。这是因为研究性的论文注重研究的方法和结果，而文献综述要求向读者介绍与主题有关的详细资料、动态、进展、展望以及对以上方面的评述。因此文献综述的格式相对多样，但总的来说，一般都包含以下部分具体格式：①综述题目；②作者单位；③摘要；④关键词；⑤前言；⑥主题；⑦总结；⑧参考文献。下面着重介绍前言、主题部分、总结部分及参考文献。撰写文献综述时可按这四部分拟写提纲，再根据提纲进行撰写工。3.1．前言部分

前言部分，主要是说明写作的目的，介绍有关的概念及定义以及综述的范围，扼要说明有关主题的现状或争论焦点，使读者对全文要叙述的问题有一个初步的轮廓。前言部分要写清：(1)写作的目的。(2)有关概念的定义。

(3)规定综述的范围、包括：“专题涉及的学科范围”，综述范围切忌过宽、过杂，“时间范围”，必须声明引用文献起止的年份。

(4)扼要说明有关问题的现况或争论焦点，引出所写综述的核心主题，这是广大读者最关心而又感兴趣的，也是写作综述的主线。3.2．主题部分

主题部分，是综述的主体，其写法多样，没有固定的格式。可按年代顺序综述，也可按不同的问题进行综述，还可按不同的观点进行比较综述，不管用那一种格式综述，都要将所搜集到的文献资料归纳、整理及分析比较，阐明有关主题的历史背景、现状和发展方向，以及对这些问题的评述，主题部分应特别注意代表性强、具有科学性和创造性的文献引用和评述。3.3．总结部分

总结部分，与研究性论文的小结有些类似，将全文主题进行扼要总结，对所综述的主题有研究的作者，最好能提出自己的见解。3.4．参考文献

参考文献虽然放在文末，但却是文献综述的重要组成部分。因为它不仅表示对被引用文献作者的尊重及引用文献的依据，而且为读者深入探讨有关问题提供了文献查找线索。因此，应认真对待。参考文献的编排应条目清楚，查找方便，内容准确无误。4．注意事项

由于文献综述的特点，致使它的写作既不同于“读书笔记”“读书报告”，也不同于一般的科研论文。因此，在撰写文献综述时应注意以下问题： 4.1.搜集文献应尽量齐全

掌握全面、大量的文献资料是写好综述的前提，否则，随便搜集一点资料就动手撰写是不可能写出好多综述的，甚至写出的文章根本不成为综述。4.2.注意引用文献的代表性、可靠性和科学性

在搜集到的文献中可能出现观点雷同，有的文献在可靠性及科学性方面存在着差异，因此在引用文献时应注意选用代表性、可靠性和科学性较好的文献。4.3.要围绕主题对文献的各种观点作比较分析，不要只是把教科书式地将有关的理论和学派观点简要地汇总陈述一遍。4.4．逻辑上要合理

文献综述在逻辑上要合理，即做到由远而近先引用关系较远的文献，最后才是关联最密切的文献。4.5．评述时需引用原文

评述(特别是批评前人不足时)要引用原作者的原文(防止对原作者论点的误解)，不要贬低别人抬高自己，不能从二手材料来判定原作者的“错误”。4.6．要指出前人不足和所作研究的必要性

文献综述结果要说清前人工作的不足，衬托出作进一步研究的必要性和理论价值。4.7．注明出处

采用了文献中的观点和内容应注明来源，模型、图表、数据应注明出处，不要含糊不清。

4.8．要有简要归纳

文献综述最后要有简要总结，表明前人为该领域研究打下的工作基础。4.9．文献须与论题有关

所有提到的参考文献都应和所研究问题直接相关。4.10．文献须具有学术性

文献综述所用的文献，应主要选自学术期刊或学术会议。4.11．须是自己直接引用的文献 所引用的文献应是亲自读过的原著全文，不可只根据摘要即加以引用，更不能引用由文献引用的内容而并末见到被引用的原文，因为这往往是造成误解或曲解原意的重要原因，有时可给综述的科学价值造成不可弥补的损失。4.12．参考文献不能省略

有的科研论文可以将参考文献省略，但文献综述绝对不能省略，而且应是文中引用过的，能反映主题全貌的并且是作者直接阅读过的文献资料。

总之，一篇好的文献综述，应有较完整的文献资料，有评论分析，并能准确地反映主题内容。5 文献综述范文

制度与经济发展和增长理论综述

摘要：（略）

关键词：（略）

制度与经济发展的关系与制度的起源、制度变迁与创新、国家制度供给一起被称为是新制度经济学的“四大支柱”，而且，在很大意义上，制度的起源、……。

一、经济增长与发展理论回瞻

1.马克思经济增长理论中关于制度的论述

马克思认为，没有抽象的生产，也没有离开制度（马克思的提法是生产关系，实质上就是制度）的生产力及其发展。生产力总是在一定生产关系中组织和运行的。……。

2.西方经济增长理论主要流派的论述

（1）模型派

他们认为：社会经济的增长或发展是促进经济增长的各种生产要素的组合、配置、叠加和质变的结果。他们将各种增长要素作为自变量，把经济增长作为因变量，确定函数关系，……。（2）结构派

他们认为，经济增长和发展既是一国经济量（总量与均量）和能力的增长与扩张过程，也是一国经济结构的转换过程。主要有刘易斯等的“二元结构论”；纳克斯的“贫困循环论”；……。

（3）阶段派

代表人物是罗斯托，他将经济发展划分为六个阶段，即传统社会阶段、为起飞准备条件阶段、起飞阶段、成熟阶段、高额群众消费阶段和追求生活质量阶段。……

（4）因素派或起源派

这一流派中，丹尼森将经济增长的因素划分成为两大类：……。

丹尼森„„.习惯称为丹尼森模型。在这个模型中，引发了两个问题：

第一个问题：各个因素对经济增长的贡献率可以通过模型进行计算，但是，是什么原因（因素）将这些因素的潜在生产力转化为现实生产力？

第二个问题：将应该计算的因素计算之后，仍然存在“剩余”或“余值”，即所谓“剩余溢出”，那么，这些“余值”应该归入到哪个因素？

（5）新增长理论派

……

（6）劳动分工演进派

杨小凯为代表的这一学派首先指出了新古典微观经济学的先天不足，……。

杨小凯等人的分工演进理论模式给我们有两点启示：

启示一：促进分工与交易以及知识的发展对经济增长和发展极为重要。

启示二：一国的制度创新，应当朝促进分工、降低交易费用、提高交易效率方向发展。

（7）“反增长”或“零增长”派 ……

二、新制度经济学派的主要论点

1.诺斯的观点

（1）制度和经济增长与发展的关系

新制度经济学派对制度与经济发展有创造性贡献的是诺斯。他关于经济增长与发展理论的核心论点简明扼要，即，经济增长和发展的关键是制度因素，……。

诺斯指出：制度环境是一系列用来确定生产、交换与分配的基本的政治、社会、……。

（2）国家在制度变迁中的作用

国家并非“中立”的，国家决定产权结构，而经济增长有赖于明确的产权，……。

（3）意识形态理论

意识形态的特征有三个：

第一，意识形态是节约机制，通过它，人们认识了他们所处环境，减少了“试错”成本。

第二，意识形态会通常与个人观察世界时对公平、公正所持的道德、伦理评价交织在一起，……。

第三，当人们原有的观念或经验与意识形态不符时，他们就会改变试图其意识形态，……。

因此，意识形态是影响制度安排和经济变化的另一个重要因素。

2.国际经济增长中心的最新研究表明：

（1）发展中国家普遍面临着维持经济增长和提高经济效率两大难题，……。

（2）制度安排是经济发展的主要动力。首先，制度通过影响信息和资源的可获得性、……。

（3）从制度的供给与需求方面研究，制度创新需求产生于经济中无效率的增多、技术变化、……。

（4）在市场经济不发达的发展中国家，根本问题是缺乏发展市场经济的制度背景。……。

三、简单的评述及问题

1.诺斯将制度因素纳入经济增长的框架，把制度作为经济增长的内生变量，……。

2.新制度经济学派方法的应用的影响越来越广泛，……。

3.将制度因素纳入经济增长和发展问题研究的范围内，……。

4.几个应当深入研讨的问题

（1）在许多人看来，制度仍然是一个非常抽象的概念，如何将制度因素进一步量化。

（2）既然制度变迁在经济发展中非常重要，怎样才能加快制度变迁的步伐，促进经济的发展。

（3）在信息化时代，信息的获取已经非常容易，那么，……。

新制度经济学派的许多观点越来越多地为人们所接受，其影响力也越来越大，但上述这些问题仍然困扰着新制度经济学派及其追随者，有待于进一步的探讨。

【参考文献】

[1][美]道格拉斯C诺斯，陈郁等译：《经济史中的结构与变迁》[M]，上海三联书店，1991

[2][美]科斯、诺斯等：《财产、产权与制度变迁》[M]，上海三联书店，1991

[3]国际经济增长中心V奥斯特罗姆和D菲尼，H皮希特编，王诚等译：《制度分析与发展的反思：问题与选择》，商务印书馆，1992

[4]张宇燕：《经济发展与制度选择：对制度的经济分析》[M]，中国人民大学出版社，1992

[5]林毅夫：《再论制度、技术与中国林业发展》[M]，北京大学出版社，2000

[6]卢现祥：《西方新制度经济学》[M]，中国发展出版社，1999

[7]李悦：《产业经济学》[M]，中国人民大学出版社，1998

[8]罗斯托：《从起飞进入持续增长的经济学》[M]，四川人民出版社，1988

[9]库兹涅茨：《各国的经济增长》[M]，商务印书馆，1985