第一篇:浅谈英语语言中的性别歧视
陈 贺
(宿州学院 外国语学院,安徽 宿州 234000)
摘 要:从英语语言出发,分析其中的性别歧视现象:视男性用语为主体,女性用语为变体或附属;两性词语在词义上不对称;词汇排序上遵循“男先女后”的原则。接着从劳动性别分工、宗教思想、性别角色社会化三个角度对之进行原因解读。这为当前的性别语言研究提供一定的参考和启示。
关键词:性别;劳动分工;宗教;角色社会化
中图分类号:H0-05 文献标识码:A 文章编号:1673-2596(2011)09-0209-03 性别歧视是以性别为基础而产生的一种歧视现象,它可以表现为男性对女性的歧视,也可以表现为女性对男性的歧视。《朗曼英语词典》定义性别歧视为:“以性别为基础的歧视,尤其是男性对女性的偏见。”《美国传统词典》关于“性别歧视”的解释是:“一类性别成员对另一类性别成员,尤其是男性对女性的歧视。”因此,“性别歧视”通常是对女性的歧视,是社会对女性的偏见[1]1。语言是人们交流的重要工具,是人类思想的重要载体,折射了社会的文化习俗与价值观念。通过语言,可以管窥到人们的性别观念。几千年来,英语国家人们一直生活在父权制体系的桎梏之下,对女性怀有深深的歧视。这一性别态度,在英语语言中有着深刻的印证。那么,本文将揭示英语语言中的性别歧视现象,并对之进行原因探讨。
一、英语语言中的性别歧视
(一)以男性为规范
以男性为规范是语言性别歧视的重要表现之一[1]1。表现在具体语言事实上,即语言视男性用语为主体,将女性用语当作变体或附属[2]。这一特征在英语语言中具有鲜明的体现。
(二)词义上的不对称
其次,与男性相比,英语中与女性相关的贬义词数量众多。据Dale Spencer统计,英语中表达“性生活放荡”的词语,至少有220个是与女性相关,而只有20个左右与男性有关。另据研究,英语中表示“在性生活上乱七八糟的女子”的词多达320个,几乎所有关于女性的词都有具有贬义,而一部分关于男性的词则含有“哪个男子不风流的”容忍之意。
再次,男女词义演变上不对称。在长期的语言交际过程中,男性词语向褒义方向演变,而女性词语则有恶化的趋势。King(国王)、lord(老爷)、master(主人)、father(父亲),在现代英语中,只要把他们的首字母大写,就可以分别用来指“上帝”、“基督”、“主或神”。与男性褒化相对,女性词语往往增加了贬义。Tart一词原指一种小糕饼,后用作亲昵的称呼年轻女子,后来演变为“富于性感的女子”,随后又转化为“对道德不甚介意,作风随便的女子”,而现在又指“在街上拉客的女子”。
(三)语序上的歧视
二、英语中性别歧视产生的原因
语言依赖于社会,是人类社会的产物。不同的社会形态,会产生不同的语言体系。语言的形成与一定的社会文化、风俗习惯、价值观念等,有着密切的关系。因此,英语语言中的性别歧视现象,与英美国家男女不平等的社会现实不无关联。而这种不平等的社会现实,与以下三个层面紧密相关:
(一)劳动性别分工
马克思主义女性主义认为男女不平等源自劳动性别分工[3]67。劳动性别分工是人类最主要的社会分工形式,以生理性和社会性别为基础,社教化将男性和女性分别规范在以性别特质界定的工作岗位[3]68。依照性别分配劳动是人类最早的劳动分工方式,它是人类寻找到的最有效的组织社会生活的方法[4]。在西方农业社会里,劳动性别分工模式主要与性别天然差异和当时的生产力发展水平有关:
首先,在某种程度来讲,劳动性别分工是自然秩序的结果[5]。根据达尔文理论,男性与女性具有一定的生理差异,两性各有独特的身体特征。总体而言,在体格方面,男性身材高大,肌肉发达,身体健壮;女性则身材较小,身体比较纤弱。在性格方面,男性精力旺盛,富有冒险精神;女性则比较文静、温柔、随和。由于这些差异,男性似乎更加适合从事与生产有关的劳动,如养殖、农耕等。而女性则适宜从事与人的再生产有关的劳动,如生育、抚育和家务劳动等。
其次,劳动性别分工形式与生产力的发展水平有直接的关系。在原始社会,生产力水平低下,男性与女性必须一起劳动,才能维持生活:女性采摘水果和种子,男性狩猎打鱼。由于当时劳动工具落后,采摘是人们主要的生活来源。于是,在一定时期内,人类社会是母系氏族社会。当人类步入农业社会后,生产力水平有了极大改善,社会的主要经济支柱转为农耕等体力劳动。由于身体上的差异,男性身体更加强壮,更适合从事这些劳动。于是,人类社会逐渐形成了新的劳动性别分工,男性主要从事农业生产等,女性则局限在家庭范围之内。
因此,在西方农业社会劳动性别分工模式里,男性是社会生产的主体。在家庭和公共空间的划分过程中,财产关系成为决定性别秩序的基本决定因素[6]。于是,长期以来,在经济上占主导地位的男性主宰着社会的一切,垄断了政治、经济、法律等公共领域;女性则处于从属地位,被禁锢在家庭范围内。这一社会特征反映在语言层面上,表现为语言中存在大量的歧视现象。
(二)宗教思想
基督教是西方文化的基石,在西方国家文明发展中起到举足轻重的作用,对社会意识形态的形成具有至关重要的意义。但是,基督教教义以男性为主体,到处充斥着对女性的排斥和歧视。在这种宗教思想体系下,男性有着无与伦比的社会地位,他们是按照神权来进行统治,按照神权来规范女性的一切[7]22。在《圣经》中,上帝创造的第一个人类是男性。上帝赋予他无限的权利,制造了世界万物,按照他的意愿命名,归他统治。为了不让他感到孤独,上帝又取其一根肋骨,创造了一个女性,来帮助他,陪伴他。于是,女性往往被看作是男性的附属品。因此,在社会关系中,男性支配社会的方方面面,而女性只能处于从属的地位:
你们作妻子的,当服从自己的丈夫,如同顺服主。因为丈夫是妻子的头,如同基督是教会的头,他又是教会全体的救主。教会怎样顺服基督,妻子也要怎样凡事顺服丈夫。(《以弗所书》第五章)
而且,女性在《圣经》中常被看作万恶之源。在伊甸园中,夏娃受到蛇的诱惑,偷吃了智慧树上的苹果,并引诱亚当也偷吃了禁果。于是,他们被上帝驱赶出伊甸园,被罚永远生活在苦难之中。因此,人们认为夏娃对人类的堕落负有不可推卸的责任。同时,在《圣经》中,无论是《旧约》还是《新约》,女性常常被忽略,鲜被提及。希伯来历史上涌现出许多杰出的优秀女性,但《圣经》对她们的记载极其简略。例如:女先知米利安,与摩西、亚伦有着同等重要的地位,不仅是女性的领导者,而且还曾经救过摩西,在以色列人走出埃及的过程中起到了无可替代的作用。但是,《圣经》对其描写很少。
与之相比,男性则几乎垄断了《圣经》的所有章节。《圣经》中几乎所有重要的人物都是男性。上帝称为我们的“父亲”,上帝的的后代是儿子耶稣。引领犹太人走出埃及的摩西,犹太人的祖先亚伯拉罕,以及耶稣的十三个门徒,全部都是男性。而且,《圣经》对其中的男性描写非常详尽,不吝笔墨。
总之,《圣经》是一本站在男性立场上,为男性书写的宗教典籍。作为基督教的重要经典,《圣经》影响广泛,其所散播的性别观念渗透到社会的方方面面,使得西方社会奠定了男尊女卑的格调,使得英语语言存在严重的性别歧视色彩。
(三)性别角色社会化
性别角色社会化指个体在社会生活中逐渐学会按照自己的性别角色规范行事的过程[6]76。每个人一出生甚至在出生前,就可能被身边的人们按照社会性别的固定模式来对待和教育。儿童从父母、教师、同辈、媒体、社会等多方面得到性别角色的信息,并受其影响,从中学习到怎样做符合社会规范的“男孩”或“女孩”,“男人”或“女人”。而且,性别角色社会化是一个持续的过程,会贯穿于每个人的一生。
性别角色社会化是自动的无意识的过程,但同时又是每个人积极参与的过程。在性别角色形成过程中,人们在很大程度上是不会意识到文化如何影响两性,并对不遵从社会期望者进行惩罚[8]169。但是,性别角色社会化并不是一个完全被动的过程。在社会性别期望的驱使下,每个人会不由自主地按照社会期望进行性别角色社会化。根据心理学家的说法,“每个人不是被动的接受性别角色社会化,而是按照他对自我、社会期望、行为规范的理解,积极的参与这一个过程”[8]169。
同时,在性别角色社会化过程中,一系列因素,如生产方式、政治制度、社会等级划分等,会影响到性别角色的形成[9]。换句话说,社会性别角色的形成,会受一定社会背景的影响,如:语言、媒体、文学、宗教、教育机构、家庭等。每一个人都会参照他的生长环境,如家庭、教育材料等,来逐渐形成适当的性别角色。
几千年来,英美国家是典型的父权制社会。男性垄断着社会的政治、经济、文化等公共领域,女性的社会活动范围则局限在家庭。在当时的社会意识形态下,女性与男性相比天生具有缺陷,是不完整的人。而且,女性是“人类堕落”和“人类原罪”的根源。
于是,在这样的社会环境下,女性一出生就被灌输相应的性别观念,并逐步的进行性别角色社会化。她们渐渐的接受其性别角色定位,认为女性是低卑的,一生应依附于男性,并遵从相应的道德规范,承担起家庭范围内的社会职责。这使得女性认同社会中的性别不平等,对语言中性别歧视现象熟视无睹,从而在一定程度上使得英语语言中的性别歧视一直延续下去。
三、结语
语言的产生离不开一定的社会环境。因此,英语语言中的性别歧视不仅仅是一种语言现象,它是英美国家男女不平等的社会现实的反映。随着三次妇女运动的高涨,英美国家女权主义者积极投身到语言改革与规划活动中来,英语中的性别歧视现象得到一定改观。但是,由于历史、文化、社会等因素,英语中的性别歧视并未完全消除。只有进一步深化性别研究,提高女性社会地位,完全实现男女平等,才能使语言真正的平等。
第二篇:浅谈英语语言中性别歧视
浅谈英语语言中性别歧视
中文摘要
性别歧视在不同的社会制度和国家中都不同程度地存在。而作为一种普遍的社会现象,自然会在语言中得到折射。本文介绍了英语中的性别歧视语的种种表现形式,分析了这种现象产生的社会原因和文化根源,并总结了在英语语言运用过程中消除性别歧视的方法。关键词: 英语语言;性别歧视;产生原因;消除方法
Abstract
Sex discrimination exists in all the social systems and countries, and as a common social phenomenon, it is surly reflected in language.This paper lists out different forms of sex discrimination in English, analyses the social and cultural causes of such phenomenon and summarizes the corresponding methods of eliminating sex discrimination in English speaking.Key words: English;sex discrimination;causes;methods of eliminating
引言
在社会生活中,语言对男女一视同仁,但语言是文化的载体,并在人们不断使用的过程中逐渐得到丰富和发展。作为一个地区,一个民族约定俗成的一种表达方式,语言必然会反映出一定的社会价值观念和民族思维方式。性别歧视是以性别为基础而产生的一种社会歧视现象,«朗曼英语词典» 对“性别歧视”的解释是:“以性别为基础的歧视,尤其是男性对女性的偏见。《美国传统字典》的定义是“一种性别成员对另一性别成员,尤其是男性对女性的歧视”。虽然它可以表现为男性对女性的歧视,也可以表现为女性对男性的歧视。但是“性别歧视”通常是对女性的歧视,是人们对女性的偏见和男女社会地位不平等的反映。“女性长期以来被看作是the weaker sex/the second sex,是男性的陪衬和附属品。即使在标榜人权,平等的西方发达国家中也是如此。而现代女权运动轰轰烈烈的发展形势正是对这一不平等现象的反抗和反映。”[1](P80)从而在语言中,出现了多种多样的性别歧视语,英语也不例外。
一、性别歧视语言现象
(一)人际称谓
亲昵称谓
在西方,男性上司称呼他们的女性下属时可以用一些表示亲密关系的昵称,如sugar, darling, sweetie, girlie;反过来,女性下属却不能用这些昵称来称呼她们的上司,而且女性上司也不能如此来称呼她们的男性职员,可是,陌生男子或非亲密关系的男子却可用昵称来称呼女子,这说明在英美社会女性比男性社会地位低,受到的尊重比男性少。[2](P74)姓名称谓
在西方 ,女子婚前一般用父姓 ,婚后改用丈夫的姓 , 例如 :在西方婚礼上 ,新郎新娘步入教堂时 ,牧师宣布:“I now pronounce you man and wife.”“婚后的男子依旧是man ,而婚后的女子则由Miss变成了wife这种现象不乏女权主义者和职业妇女。”[2](P74)当时的美国总统Bill Clinton的夫人Hilary Rodhamon也在为自己的 ,即支持已婚女性不仅
应当标注夫姓 ,而且只应当标注夫姓 ,而不应继续标注父姓。尽管Hilary Rodhamon本人是一位女权运动者 ,但她还是把自己的名字根据丈夫和自己的政治需要, 先从Hilary Rodhamon改为Hilary Rodhamon Clinton, 最后改为Hilary Clinton。但是, 不管怎么改, 都不能超出如下选择: 要么跟父亲姓, 要么跟丈夫姓。这种以丈夫的姓冠之于前的称呼 ,表明妇女出嫁后就成了丈夫的私有财产, 是属于丈夫的, 因此无法得到与丈夫平等的权利。未婚女性用Miss冠以父姓, 已婚的用Mrs.或Lady冠以丈夫的姓氏。
指代称谓
1)提到男女双方时,双方不是处于平等地位,而是男先女后。
King and queen, brother and sister, father and mother, boys and girls, husband and wife, Adam and Eve, man and woman, Mr.Lucas and his wife Louise.2).一些形式上没有男性标志的词意,人们习惯上把它们当作是男性词看待。
英语及其它讲英语国家的人习惯认为 professor, doctor, lawyer, surgeon, barrister, magistrate 等为男性,当我们听到有人说:My cousin is a professor 时,多数人会断定professor为男性。若要说明这些词是女性的,一般可在前面加上woman, lady, female 等 修饰语。如:woman professor, lady doctor, female worker等,这些所谓的中性词的用法从一个侧面反映出旧社会中地位较高的职业为男子所垄断,相反地teacher, nurse , secretary, model 等人们一般认为是女性,如为男性时前面要加上male或是man,如:male nurse, man teacher。这些习惯除了历史现实情况有关,也可以说是一种社会偏见。
(二)词语发展
首先,表面上对应的词,含义却往往褒男贬女在英语中往往通过对女性名词的恶化来达到性别歧视的目的。几乎所有的女性名词都带有贬义,如queen, lady, mistress, madam等,其贬义为“雌猫”、“情妇”、以及“鸨母”等,而与之对应的king, lord, master, father 等词,如将他们的起首字母大写即可升格为“上帝”、“基督”、“主”、“神”等意义。
其次,英语中常用一些动物的名称来指称某些女性。
比如:bat(贱妇,丑妇,妓女);dog(丑妇,贱妇,没有成就的女人,妓女);chicken(见面熟的年轻女人);cat(恶妇,包藏祸心的女人,可卑的女人);cow(子女多的女人,肥胖而不整洁的女人,经常怀孕的女人,妓女);mutton(放荡的女人,做少女打扮的老妇女,妓女)。
并且,英语中还有一些带有轻蔑色彩,专指中老年妇女的词汇。
比如:trot(老太婆);hen(爱管闲事或嘴碎的中年妇女);warhorse(粗声大气,肥胖固执的女人);crone(干瘪皱皮的老太婆);hag(爱做坏事的老丑妇);witch(老丑妇);biddy(长舌妇);harridan(面容枯槁,脾气暴躁的老妇)。
(三)谚语运用
理性类
宋朝黄六鸿《福惠全书,弄名部》载:“妇人水性杨花,焉得不为所动”,诋毁女子“用情不专”,“缺乏理性”,在英语中就有相类似的谚语。
Long hair and short wit.(头发长,见识短)
When an ass climbs a ladder, we may find wisdom in women.(若要女子有才智,除非毛驴攀上树)
言及女子“感情游移”“二三其德”的有:
A woman’s mind and winter wind change a lot.(冬天里的风,女子的心胸---变化异常)
Women, wind and fortune are ever changing.(女子,风向与命运,翻天覆地无常态)
婚嫁类
A fair face is half a portion.(姿色艳,嫁妆半)
When the candles are out, all women are fair.(烛灯熄,无妍女)
Daughters and dead fish are no keeping wares.(女大不中留)
Marry your son when you will, your daughter when you can.(娶媳不忙,嫁女宜速)
There are many good women, it’s true;but they are in their graves.(世上好女实在多,可惜都在坟里卧)
He that has a white horse and a fair wife never wants trouble.(倘若妻俊马俊,一世难得安静)
性情类
一代文豪莎士比亚曾云:“弱者,你的名字是女人”(Frailty, your name is woman)弱女子的典型形象特征是“泪水涟涟”。
Woman is made to weep.(女子生来好哭)
Nothing dries so fast as a woman’s tears.(易干不过女子泪)
Woman is made of glass.(女子脆复弱,象是玻璃货)
Glass and lasses are brittle wares.(少女嫩脆,瓷杯易碎)
(四)职业中的性别歧视
许多表示职业的名词,如engineer ,pilot, scientist ,writer, doctor,pilot, scientist, engineer, pilot等对男女都适用,本来是中性词汇,本身没有性的区别。“由于历史上男性长期占据社会主导地位,人们习惯把它们与男性联系起来。”[3](P210)如要特别指女性从事相同职业时,往往在前面加上female, woman lady, 从而使女性职业名词在外在的形式上呈现出“有标志性”,如woman doctor, female pilot, woman scientist, woman lawyer等。而行业名称冠以男性标记反而不符合语言习惯,但男保姆、男护士除外。只有一些地位较底的职业,如nurse, secretary等,传统上让人联想到女性,而与男性无缘。这种习惯除了与历史和现实有关,也可以说是一种性别歧视。
二、英语语言中性别歧视现象产生的原因
(一)、历史原因
在西方文化传统中,男性一直被认为富于创造力。在《圣经》里,创造世界的耶和华为男性,而耶和华创造的亚当亦是男性,亚当的妻子夏娃只不过是亚当一条肋骨的衍化物,这一传统观念就把创造力固定在男人身上,后人便有了“男性的特质是创造力的天赋”的说法。并且在圣经《创世纪》关于上帝造人的神话成了语言起源学说的联想依据。“在他们看来,既然上帝造
了亚当这天下第一个男人,语言中的“性”范畴就应将阳性置于首位。如果把两者的顺序颠倒过来,就不符合语言习惯。” [4](P132)英语语法并没有规定“先男后女”的语序,但人们在长期的言语习惯中,大都以男为先,女为后,女性只能是跟随在男性后面的第二性别。男先女后的语序是如此常见,以至于反过来如说woman and man ,she or he等则会令人感到不习惯。
(二)、社会原因
性别歧视的根源可以追溯到史前时代男女所扮演的性别角色。由于男性的肌肉比女性肌肉发达,又不生育,于是他们担当起打猎、耕作的角色,妇女体弱、要生育,所以负责照顾孩子、料理家庭、采集食物等。那时,男女角色虽然不同,但还没有一方价值高于另一方的观念。“随着社会生产力的不断发展,男子逐渐从事更多的农业生产活动,占据了主导地位,妇女的地位随供给食物能力的降低而下降。”[5](P113)到了中世纪时期,妇女由于能生养孩子,能为土地所有者生养合法继承人,她们成了地主丈夫的宝贵财产。为了使妇女处于这样的地位,统治者便借助法律令女性屈服和受制于丈夫,于是,各种约束妇女的各种社会规范和习俗开始形成。在漫长的父系社会里,妇女地位低下,依附男性,受制于男性,这种观念逐渐根深蒂固,被人们视为理所当然。直到二十世纪,妇女的地位有了很大的改善,但是社会化偏见是在社会化的过程中,通过社会群体,父母,亲友,伙伴的言传身教和大众传媒(广播,电影,电视,报纸)获得的。人们对女性的歧视和偏见也是从父母,亲友或群体的交往中直接获得的,或通过大众传媒获得的。在英语中,受传统观念的影响,对女性的语言歧视已经成为了一种恶性循环。比如,人们一看到或听到“virgin”和“prostitute”这两个词,首先想到的就是“处女”和“妓女”的意思,而很少想到它们还分别可用于指“处男”和“男娼”。
(三)、生理原因
记的有人写道:在医院的育婴室里,每个刚出生的婴儿的小床上都有说明性别的标记,上面清楚写着:“I am a boy”或“It is a girl”.这里男孩的称呼是I, 而女孩却用it。在婴儿还不知道什么是语言时,而在他们的身上已深深打上了文化和语言的印记。在英语中用男性物主代词his指代包括女性在内的任何人的现象也不胜枚举。例如Has everyone completed his
assignment?还有Everyone should do his best on the exam.这里的his已经包括了女性在内。虽然女性享有就业、选举、教育等等同男性一样的权利,然而女性仍然处于社会的边缘,被认为是“弱者”(the weaker sex)和“他者”(the other);男性始终占据主导地位。” [6](P210)根据1980年的联合国统计,男性拥有世界资源的99%,而女性拥有的资源不到1%。“因此说,对女性的歧视与偏见有长期的社会历史根源。”[6](P219)
三、消除英语语言中性别歧视的方法
随着社会的发展和妇女社会地位的不断提高,尤其是随着美国女权运动的高涨,消除语言中的性别歧视的呼声越来越高。这其中核心问题有两个:如何直接剔除语言中的性别歧视词(sexist words);如何消除第三人称代词泛指而引起的性别歧视问题。我们从英语性别歧视词的转换方式和如何选用恰当的人称代词来消除性别歧视问题的对策这几个方面来进行介绍和讨论。
(一)、性别歧视词转换成无性别歧视词(non-sexist words)的方法尽量使用那些包括两性在内的词,即无性别歧视词,例如:immigrant, voter, officer, coach, church member, grandparent, employee, testee, patriot, customers, dealer, clerk, civilian, politician, tutor, etc.2.以阴性词缀-ess, ette, rix和enne 结尾的词要避免使用并改成无性别歧视的词缀:-or, an, er或ist。例如:actress →actor, administratrix →administrator ,suffragette →suffragist, usherette→ usher ,comedienne→ comedian.3.写信时,如果不知道收信人的具体性别时,最好不要使用传统的Dear Sir, Dear Gentleman, Dear Madam, 可用工作职称代替以免出现差错。例如:Dear friends of the library, Dear Madams and Sirs, Dear personnel officer, Dear Committee Member, Dear Agent, Dear Director.(二)、规避第三人称代词泛指所引起的性别歧视问题的对策
1.采用复数形式
Sexist: When bathing a baby, never leave him unattended.Revised: When bathing a baby, never leave them unattended.2.用We/us/our改写原句
Sexist: From each according to his abilities, to each according to his needs.Revised: From each of us according to our abilities, to each of us according to our needs.3.改用第二人称
Sexist: No man knows his true character until he has run out of gas, purchased something on the installment plan and raised an adolescent.Revised: You don’t know what your true character is until you have run out of gas, purchased something on the installment plan and raised an adolescent.4.改用被动语态
Sexist: One who, when he has the choice of two evils, chooses both.Revised: One who, when given the choice of two evils,chooses both.5.用 he and she/ his and her ,但是使用的次数不宜太多,否则会造成用词累赘。s/he仅仅可以用于备忘录(memos),便条(notes),或者非正式的交谈之中。
6.用名词或上下文中用过的同义词替代
Sexist: To find a friend one must close one eye, to keep him, two.Revised: To find a friend, one must close one eye, to keep a friend, two.7.采用交替使用阳性和阴性来达到平衡
例如:A young child is often persuaded by advertisements to buy what he sees on television.When the child does shopping with a parent, she sees the product on the shelf, remembers it, and asks to have it.(三)、英语教学作用
在英语教学中向学生传授新创立的中性表达法,学校和教师在语言的习得、文化的传授中起着不可低估的作用。改变对女性的否定态度,语言的改革也是重要的一环。语言教师同样也肩负着一份神圣的使命。在英语学习中,教师首先要规范自己的语言,在课堂上尽量避免带有性别偏见的语句。然后,教师根据教学内容把女权运动后英语中出现的新词、新用法传授给学生,有意识地加强性别平等的思想教育,让学生了解英语国家的社会变化、语言动态。应该强调妇女不应该被忽视。女人们每天在生活中仍然发挥着巨大的影响力。没有女人就没有男人的成功。女人们用自己的智慧竭尽全力使每个家庭生活更丰富多彩。
四、结论
在使用上面谈到的方法、对策时,我们一定要把握一个“度”,具体使用那一种方法、对策要取决于它能否使我们的写作、会话顺利进行并达到预期的效果。“正如以前女性主义思想家认为,女性与语言疏远太久,与她们的女性经验疏远太久,使她们不能将自己的经历符号
化。”[7](P331)传统的标准句法和确定的文类都代表父权制话语结构。因此女性主义试图找到新的语言和新的文学形式对女性现实做出反映。她们批评并激烈地改变既存语言,大胆地
进行创作实验,使用新词、新拼写、新语法结构、新意象和新隐喻以远离父权语言的权威结构,为女性寻求一片新的话语空间。女性主义的口号之一就是“妇女通过语言获得完全的解放”。而且,“语言是社会的一面镜子,语言中所折射出的性别差异和性别歧视现象并不是由语言符号本身的自然属性决定的,而是特定社会的价值观念和民族思维方式在语言中的必然反映。”[8](P287)语言本身是中性的,但语言的使用者却可以按照其社会观念和价值观念,赋予语言一定的语用色彩。若要消除语言包括人际称谓系统中的性别歧视现象,首先需根除社会上存在的性别歧视观念,语言的变革只有在社会变革的基础上才能最终实现。
从以上论述可以看到女性要获得自身的真正解放与不平等要做不懈努力。语言对社会的反映 经历了漫长的过程。旧的歧视清除了,新的歧视还会反映到语言中来。语言中性别歧视的真正消除,只能寄希望于在社会现实中,男女真正的平等。“索绪尔认为语言不仅是交际工具,还是思想的载体,没有语言作为载体和工具,人的思维也就无法发展。”[9](P267)性别歧视的改观不能等待男权的施舍,要女性自我的觉醒,要女性自己的参与。在强势和弱势文化的交汇中,同样需要弱势文化自身的努力。强调性别差异的重要性是必要的,但它只是过渡性的,女性不能只作为女性说话,男性也不能只作为男性说话。要走出性歧视的误区,出路在于语言的中性化,而实现语言的中性化,在于不断提高语言觉悟。因此,“女性运动要取得实质性的进展,不是依靠女性自身就能完成的,不仅需要世界范围内广大女性的团结,更需要寻求作为人类另一半的男性的支持与配合,因此更有必要加强与男性的沟通和协商。”[10](P113)
参考文献
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[2] 蒋桂红.谚语视野里的性别歧视[J].宁波大学学报, 2004, 第1期。
[3] 朱伯通等译.哥伦比亚美国文学史[M].成都:四川辞书出版社,1994。
[4] 穆凤良,李秀萍.英语中的性歧视与中性化[J].外语与外语教学,1998。
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第三篇:论英语中的性别歧视
景德镇陶瓷学院科技
艺术学院
本科生毕业论文(设计)
题目:Sexism in English Vocabulary 学 号: 姓 名: 院(系): 专 业: 完成时间: 指导老师:
CONTENTS Acknowledgements…………………………………………..Abstract in Chinese…………………………………….Abstract in English…………………………………….1.Definition……………………………………………… 2.Sexism in word-formation methods………………..2.1 Suffixes………………………………………….2.2 Sexism in compound words……………………..3.Sxism in Naming and Addressing…………………..3.1 Sexism and Naming……………………………….3.1.1 Sexism in the first names………………..3.1.1.1 Derivation of Female Names from Male Names……..3.1.1.2 Sexism in Semantic Naming of First Names……….3.1.2 Sexism in the family names…………… 3.1.2.1 Patrilineal System of Family Names 3.1.2.2 Change of Female Family Names upon marriage 3.2 Sexism and Addressing……….3.2.1 Sexism in Addressing Terms…..3.2.1.1Female Social Titles upon Relationship with Male…
3.2.1.2 Derogation of Female Honorific Titles…………….3.2.1.3 Abusive Addressing Patterns………………..4.Sexism in Proverb and Slang……………………………..4.1 Sexism in Proverb…………………………………………… 4.2 Sexism in Slang……………………………………… 5.Conclusion……………………………………………………..6.Bibliography……………………………………………………
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My deepest gratitude goes first and foremost to Professor Hou Xiaohua,my supervisor,for her constant and inspiring guidance and encouragement.She has walked me through all the stages of writing of the thesis.Without her constant and illuminating instruction,this thesis could not have reached its present form.Second,i would like to expree my heartfelt gratitude to all the teachers who taught me when i have striving for my Bachelor Degree for their excellent lectures and inspiring ideas.Last, my thanks would go to my beloved family for their loving considerations and great confidence in me all through these years.I also owe my sincere gratitude to my friends and my fellow classmates who gave me their help and time in listening to me and helping me work out my problems during the difficult course of the thesis
摘要
英语不仅是一种语言工具,也是一种意识形态工具。性别歧视这一文化观念反映在语言的词汇学中。牛津高级字典是这样解释的:“不平等的对待人,尤其是对女性,因为她们的性别”。本篇论文将从英语词汇构词法、词义、称谓语及谚语和俚语分析英语词汇中的性别歧视。所以对性别歧视了解的越多,避免的困难也就越多。这是很有实际意义的。关键词:语言;英语词汇;性别歧视
ABSTRACT
English is not only a language tool, but also an ideological tool.Vocabulary of the language can faithfully reflect the culture it serves such as sexism.The oxford advanced learner's dictionary explains it as below: the unfair treatment of people, especially women, because of their sex.This article will discuss sexism that exists in English lexicon in terms of word formation ,word meaning ,naming and addressing terms ,as well as proverb and slang terms.So the more you know it, the better you will avoid trouble.Therefore, the present research has important practical significances.Key words: language;English word;sexism;
1.Definition
Sexism,according to Oxford Advanced Learner‟s English
-Chinese Dictionary is defined as prejudice or discrimination against people(esp.woman)because of their sex;and according to Longman Dictionary of Comtenporary English ,sexism is defined as ideas and believe that menbers of one(usually man)sex are more able and clever than theode of the other sex.It is manifest in all forms of behavior from subtle gestures and especially language to exploitation and oppression,and in all human institutions from the family to the multinational corporation(Paula S.Rothenberg 1988:21). It affirms the dominance of men over women,jnst as Rosemary Radford Ruether(1993:165)holds that“sexism is gender privilege of males over females.It is males primarily who have originated this form of oppression,benefited from it,and perpetuated it,legally and ideologically.”In this sense,it keeps women in second.classstatus,denies them their rights to control their own bodies,and denies personal,mental,and physical safety;it reinforces the false notion that any man who is gentle,flexible,compassionateor gay becomes“feminine”and thereby loses status and respect. 2.Sexism in word formation
Word formation is one of the elements in language from which we can find many examples of sexism.The most obvious one is the word “history”,which it combines words “his”and “story”.It claimed that the history belonged to man not the woman.In general,it is divided in to two categories,adding suffixes and compounding.2.1 Adding suffixes Adding-tress is common among words like ,actress,authoress,sculptress and waitress.Although it sometimes awarded some outlanding achievements of women,the importance of its role isn‟t the same as man.For instance,we usually call a man of a general manager,rather than a general manageress.The highest rank of poet in British is Poet Laureate,which it award to every distinguished poet including both males and females.Howerever,rarly had it probably honored a poet of Poetess Laureate.Word like hostess is widely accepted by people in bar ,which its meaning had been degraded.The same as in the terms of JewessNegrss and Quakeress
The suffix of-ette includes three meanings.The first one aims at small size,such as “cigarette(香烟)” and “kitchenette(小厨房)”.The second level is artifical ,such as “Leatherette(人造皮)”.The third level derives from the last two meanings which discloses the oweakness of woman and subordinates to man.As a result ,it discininates against woman obviously.Woman are unfairly treated.Duing the turn of 19 century and 20 century ,“Suffragette”was frequently used by women who wanted to strive rights for women.However,the public and media used it with derogation.Words like aviatrix(女飞行员),executrix(女执行官)and dominatrix(母夜叉)added the suffix of-trix,which all present an insular prejudice towards women.Women are so weak and fragile that they need obey to men.2.2 Sexism in compound words
In addition to sex discrimination in suffixes,compounding is a good example too.Take word-formationof common words made by “man” and “woman”for example.on one hand,there are a great many words with “man”,like human,policeman,chairman,businessman,sportsman,superman,mankind,postman,Englishman,airman,salesman,clergyman,kinsman,countryman,etc.Even the word “woman”is made up of “man.All these words should refer only to the male,while in fact,the meanings of these words also cover woman,which is obviously unfair to the female.Actually,this kind of words are regarded as masculine words in grammar.According to the point of view in English history,it inherits word-formation principle of Latin and old English in grammar gender.So such kinds of words empasize masculine in word structure.At the sametime,it also stresses that all things are done by the mmale, not the female in practical use.That is quite unfair to the female.On the other hand,in social life,pepole always regard women with discrimination.If a woman is engaged in noble cases,she will face much more difficulties than men.And the following meaning of words also show that the words made up of”woman”mainly emphasize the characteristics of women who are engaged in some kind of profession or belong to a certain of sector.For example,(1)Womankind: female human beings(2)Chairwoman: a woman presiding officer of an assembly meeting,committee or board(3)Womanpower:the power of woman physcial strength(4)Policewoman: a woman who is in a member of a police force(5)Womanhood:the state of being a woman;woman(6)Horsewoman:a woman horseback rider
3.Sexim in Naming and Addressing Spender(1985:24)notes: one of the features of English language practices which are inherently sexist is the use of naming and addressing terms.”Naming and addressing terms play an important role in interpersonal communication.They are continuously used in our daily life hence the social and cultualfactors encoded in them are very valuable for us to explore.3.1 Sexism and Naming
Naming system usually includes first name,middle name and family nam,such as “William Jefferson Clinton”.First name such as”William”in the example,is otherwise known as Chtistian name,forename or given name.Middle name like”Jefferson”in the example occurs betwwen the first name and family name as the second forename,and is usually represented by its capitalized initial letter and is often used in formal occassions.Family name is known as Surname,or last name,which is a name shared in common to identify the mumbers of a family,which is usuallyinheritedfrom the ascending generation on the paternal side,such as‟Clinton”in the example.This part will discuss the sexist phenomena in the first and family name on the basis of the analysis of their semantic features.3.1.1 Sexism in the first names
Giving first name to the infant is one of the most important tasks.First name is truly a lifetime gift from parents;it helps define the children within the family,school and the outside word.Hence an analysis of sexism in first names is very significant.3.1.1.1 Derivation of Female Names from Male Names
In English lots of female names derivate from male names by adding affixes for example,Stephen-Stephanie,Dana-Dana.Affixs play an important role in the formation of female names.After researching affixes used to refer to female in English,Mills(1995:93)claims that those affixes lead to a view of women as a derivation from a male universal norm and the female form is seen as the marked term and the male as the unmarked term.Therefore,it is not a surprise that female names would have some consistent marker bias.Many female names derive of male ones by addingthe suffixes “-a”(or “-ia” due to phonetic reason), “e” and “-line” to them.like Albert and Alberta、、Alex and Alexa、Daniel and Danielle、Gabriel and Gabriell and Paul and Pauline etc.First corresponding with the above, research has shown that male names differ fromfemale ones in two major aspects.Firstly, male names are shorter in spelling than female names according to the research, There are many male names are formed with one syllable such as Jim, Fred, John, Bob and Jack, while only few female names are one syllable.Furthermore, fewer female names have three or more than three syllables, such as Roberta, Victoria and Amand.Part of the explanation of this study lies in the fact that many female names are originated from male names by adding one or more syllables.Secondly, male names are phonologically different from female ones.This thesis finds that majority of male names are ended with consonant phonetic symbol in which some male names end with the stops [d], [t], [k] such as Robert, Richard, Jack;while only two femalenames do, namely, Brooke and Jade.However, most of female names analyzed endedwith a vowel [i], [i:], [ə], such as Mary and Anna, but only a few male names do so.Cutler argues(1990: 476), “Small vocal tracts such as [i], [i:], [ə], which producehigh-pitched sounds, are typically possessed by smaller, weaker, less threateningbeings.” Therefore, the frequent use of [i] in such female names as Tracey, Mary andBonnie, and [ə] in Rita, Selina and Lisa, reflects “smallness and lack of threat are heldto be desirable attributes of females”.Theoretically, the practice of deriving female names from male ones forms the contrast in which men are dominant and women are subordinate in society and meanwhile it is in accordance with the belief in Bible that woman was created from a rib of man.3.1.1.2 Sexism in Semantic Meaning of First Names
The names that people give their children show the hopes and dreams they have for them and also reflects their parents‟ hope and expectations for their children.So from their first names,we can know the different attitudes of parents to boys and girls.First names for girls and boys often reflect stereotyped features of feminity or.masculinity prevailing in a particular culture or society.It is undeniable that first names contain various connotations and this thesis will make an effort on the sexism in name‟s connotation In our society the vast majority of first names carry clear feminine or masculine connotations.People no matter in the East or West attach great importance to marking the child‟s sex when choosing a name for him or her.And in baby naming book, there might be two lists: one for girls and another for boys.According to it, parents are recommended to choose a name that identifies the child‟s sex.Besides marking the sex of the child, first names for girls and boys often reflect stereotyped features of femininity and masculinity prevailing in culture.More female names contain the connotation associated with appearance while more male names contain connotation associated with wealth, power, wisdom and intelligence.It reflects the sexist expectaton that male should improve internal quality and female should pay more attention to external beauty.3.1.2 Sexism in Family Names
Family names are passed down from generation to generation, it symbolizes the blood relationship and development of a family.From the way of giving family names, it is not difficult to find the sexism.3.1.2.1 Patrilineal System of Family Names
When women were born, they were given their fathers‟ name and adopted their husbands‟ names upon marriage.It‟s only sons who carry on their fathers‟ name forever, whereas women lost this capacity when they got married.This stresses the portrayal of women as the prosperity of men, passed from father to husband.They just have no freedom to own their own names.US Senator Hilary Clinton.Either way she names herself after a man- her father or her husband, or both.Children typically inherited their fathers‟ rather than their mothers‟ family names, which enables fathers but not mothers to achieve a direct continuity of naming from generation, provided they have sons.Even if there are only daughter, however the derivation of female forms from male names enables the transmission to continue.It‟s very common for women in English-speaking countries to adapt their husbands‟ names upon they got married.Thus women are said to“marry into families and families are sad to „die out‟ if an all-female” generation occurs.Thus, Spender comments:“Practically”, it means that women‟s family names don‟t count and there is one more device making women invisible.”
In the ceremony, the, the official asks,“ Who gives the bride away?”and the father answers.“I do”, or “Her mother and I do”, but that does not solve the problem inherent in the idea that a bride is something to be handed over from one man to another.3.1.2.2 Change of Female Family Names upon Marriage
When a woman is referred with her husband‟s name, as in “Mrs.John Smith”, she is rendered both subordinate and invisible.For example, when a woman named Helen Keller marries to a man named John Fords, She is submerged by being called Mrs.John Fords.Even the woman is of high social status;it is the same with her.One of the candidates in 2008 Presidential Election of the United States of America, Hilary, the former president of Bill Clinton‟s wife, kept her maiden name “Hilary Rodham” after marriage.But in order to help her husband in the election, she had to change her names.Though allegedly a feminist, she has shifted between naming herself Hilary Rodham, Hilary Rodham Clinton and Hilary Clinton.Despite the fact that some countries no longer legally require for women to adopt their husband‟s names upon marriage, women who do not conform to this practice still face many practical and attitudinal obstacles.3.2 Sexism and Addressing
3.2.1 Sexism in Addressing Terms Addressing term is a mark that indentifies the relationship of people in social activities, which can present our ideal and social ties.It is used frequently in the communication.According to different criteria, address forms can be divided into different classifications.They can be divided into: social titles, occupational titles, endearments, abusive terms,kinship terms etc.3.2.1.1 Female Social Titles upon Relationship with Male Mr、Miss and Mrs are used frequently when we refers to address someone in social communication.All adult men are called Mr, however women have different addressing terms after they get married.As we know, marriage and age is private.The title of Mrs indicates that women are reluctant to disclose his marriage condition, which is unfair to women.In addition to this ,when adapting the Mrs, her family names do not belong to her own ,but her husbands‟.“Iron Lady” Margaret Thatcher and Nobel Prize Lady Marie Curie did not change this condition.These two famous persons still surbodinated to men.人们在社会交往中称呼某个男性或女性个体时,最常使 用的是Mr、Miss 和Mrs。对所有成年男性都统称为Mr,而对于 成年女性则有已婚和未婚的不同称谓。众所周知,婚姻和年龄 一直都是涉及到个人隐私的话题,而Mrs.这一称谓公开宣布 了女性不愿意表明的婚姻状况,让女人永远都得不到和男人 能够平起平坐的对待。更有甚者,当使用Mrs.的时候,女性使 用的不是自己的姓氏,取而代之的是丈夫的姓,表明自己已经 嫁给了某人,即使是一代名相“铁娘子”撒切尔夫人和诺贝尔 物理奖的居里夫人也没有改变这种现象,这两位女强人虽闻 名世界却仍旧摆脱不了被的问题。这一语言现象正
是由于人们认为男人是世界的主宰,而女人只是男人的附属
3.2.1.2 Derogation of Female Honorific Titles
In the male-orienated society, people honor high stature to men solely, for instance chairman、spokesman and policeman.However when woman gets achievements in her career, she will be regarded as an example.Such as words, doctor、lawyer can both designate the same state or condition as it did for men.However,it is a convention for people classifying them into male-dominated society.for example, “master” and “mistress”.In an earlier society, master and mistress were simple male-female equivalents meaning “one who has control over or ownership of something or has control over another or others”.With the changing of society, “master” now generally refers to a man who has power over others or who has acquired skills in some field.But its feminine counterpart cannot be used in this way.It is practically restricted to its sense of “paramour”, a woman who a man has a sexual relationship with, but is not married to.For example, “He is a master of intricacies and academic politics”, and “Catherine declined to be his mistress, and returned to her husband”.3.2.1.3 Abusive Addressing Terms for Female
Abusive terms of address are unfriendly and insulting terms to address others;convey quite unpleasant affections.There are two major types of words that are most likely to serve as abusive addressing terms which females are humiliated.Examples of the first type are: “wanton” is used to address a woman who is immoral, lewd, and unchaste.The second type are associated with such words as ass, pig, rat, tigress, duckie, shrew, turkey, cow, goat which is closely connected with the figurative meanings of such foods, plants and animals.A.Foods The food terms have not escaped the process of derogation, which often associated with women show women‟s passive image and subordinate status.The following are some examples: cheesecake—a picture of a naked lady;dumpling—short and fat women;mutton—indicating an elderly lady dressed up as a young girl in “mutton dressed(up)as lamb”;
sweet-pie—a mistress;tart—a prostitute or women behave frivolously or a woman considered to be sexually;B.Plants
Plants names are involved in addressing male or female.But the semantic prototype of male is a gigantic tree while that of female is flowers.Plants names are used to address females, they often have insulting meaning as follows: clinging vine—a woman who overly depends on a man emotionally;shrinking violet—a shy woman;wall flower—a woman who has no one to dance with.C.Animals
When you use an animal name for a female, usually they are smaller animals like “kitten”, “bunny”, “chick” which are more likely to become pejorative;and others like “chicken”, which more likely to acquire sexual suggestions.Male, however, are referred to as being a tiger, moose, or even as a bear to show aggressive masculine attribute and dominance to female.When you use an animal name for a female, usually they are smaller animals like “kitten”, “bunny”, “chick” which are more likely to become pejorative;and others like “chicken”, which more likely to acquire sexual suggestions.Male, however, are referred to as being a tiger, moose, or even as a bear to show aggressive masculine attribute and dominance to female.The following are examples:(a)For females bitch—a woman considered to be spiteful or overbearing or a lewd woman;butterfly—a showy or frivolous person(esp.a female);cat—a malicious or spiteful woman or an evil woman;chicken—prostitutes;(b)For males
goat—an old man who is sexually active or a lecherous man;loin—a brave, strong, or fiercely cruel person(usu.of males);tiger—a fierce, determined person(esp.males);wolf—a man given to paying unwanted sexual attention to women or a satyr.From the example discussed above, we could conclude that names of foods, plants and animals used to address female are sexist, because most of them humiliate female from the perspectives of appearance, personality and identity and meanwhile imply that female is inferior to male or easy to be obtained by male.4.Sexism in English proverbs
English proverbs reflect the social customs and cultural perceptions of the English-speaking countries.Since sexism is embodied in human culture, English proverbs unavoidably reflect sexist discrimination.This essay penetrates into sexism in English proverbs from three perspectives, namely status, personality flaws, and demands on women.4.1 Sexism in English proverb There are many proverbs that indicate women‟s low condition in society and her vulnerability in family.The following examples are classified into three kinds a.Social status and family status Man, woman and devil are three degrees of comparison.(男人、女人和魔鬼,三个等级分贵贱。)If the husband be not at home, there is nobody.(丈 夫不在家,等于说没人。)
A woman‟s advice is never to seek.(女人的建议一文 不值。)A woman of no birth may marry into the purple.(夫荣 妻贵。)A woman, a dog and a walnut tree, the more you beat them, the better they‟ll be.(拳脚之下出好妻,棍棒之下 有义犬,胡桃敲打多结果。)A man is a man though he have/has but a hose on his head.(家贫袜当帽,仍是男子汉。)A man of straw is worth of a woman of gold.(稻草男 儿抵得上金玉女子。)A fair face is half a portion.(姿色颜,嫁妆半。)Since the acient time ,women were suppressed under the low social status and suffered a lot.They subordinated to men and acted as an animal for men beating.b.vulnerability characteristic(1)Women are fragile
Frailty , thy name is woman.(脆弱啊,你的名字是女 人。)Woman is made to weep.(女人生性爱流泪。)A woman and a glass are ever in danger.(女人易毁,玻璃易碎。)A woman is the weaker vessel.(女人是易碎的器皿。)It is no more pity to see a woman weep than to see a goose go bare foot.(女人哭如鹅光脚走路,根本不值得可怜。)(2)Women are changeable.A woman is a weather cock.(女人是风向标。)A winter weather and women’s thoughts change oft.(秋 天的云,女人的心—变化莫测。)Women are wavering as the wind.(女人心思犹如风之多 变。)There’s nothing sooner dry than women’s tears.(什 么也没有女人的眼泪干得快。)(3)Women are noisy and troublesome.A woman’s tongue is the last thing about her that dies.Where there are women and geese, there wants no noise.(哪有鹅和女人,哪不缺喧闹声)Foxes are all tail and women are all tongue.Three women and a goose make a market.(三个女人一只 鹅,市场里面闹哄哄。)A woman’s tongue wags like a lamb’s tail.(女人饶 舌如同羔羊摆尾。)Words are women, deeds are men.(女人的嘴巴,男人的 行动。)
(4)Women are deceptive, pretentious and evil.Every woman would rather be beautiful than good.(女 人爱美不重德。)Tell a woman she is fair, and she will soon turn fool.(跟女人讲她长得漂亮,很快她就会晕头转向。)Bad woman are worse than bad men.Trust not a woman, when she weeps.Bad women can do more than the devil.Women are the devil’s nets.(女人是万恶之源。)There is no devil so bad as a she-devil.(魔鬼当中女 人最坏。)3.Traditonal requirments The smell of an onion from the mouth of the lovely is sweeter than that of a rose in the hand of the ugly.(美女口中葱蒜臭,胜过丑女手中玫瑰香。)Husbands are in heaven whose wives scold not.(老婆 不唠叨,丈夫就像生活在天堂里。)A simple maiden in her flower is worth a hundred coats of arms.(正值芳龄的纯洁少女值一百枚勋章。)Beauty without virtue is like a rose without scent.(美而无德犹如花无香味。)Silence is the best ornament of a woman.(女子文静,不须治容。)Maidens should be mild and meek, swift to hear, and slow to speak.(少女尚温柔,多听慢开口。)Modesty is the ornament of women.(稳重为妇女增美。)A good wife and health are a man’s best wealth.(贤 妻与健康是丈夫最佳财富。)从古至今,女性都处在被观赏和被品位的地位,在男性占主 导的社会中,女性被要求既要上得厅堂,又要下得厨房,既要有 貌,又要有德,既要纯洁,又要贤淑。
第四篇:试析英语谚语中的性别歧视
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论《野性的呼唤》的多重主题 133 新加坡英语和英国英语比较研究
英语毕业论文)从利益最大化的角度分析商务谈判中的报价策略 135 奈达“功能对等”理论在中国电影片名英译中的运用分析 136 An Analysis of Gothic Features in Poe’s The Cask of Amontillado 137 中美个人理财规划的对比分析
On the Translation of Children’s Literature in the Light of the Skopostheory:A Case Study of The Adventures of Tom Sawyer 139 从电影《刮痧》看东西方文化差异
Study of the Translation of Flower Image in Chinese Classical Poetry 141 初中英语课堂教学师生互动有效性研究 142 诗歌《飞鸟集》的意象评析 143 论大学英语口语课外活动
A Contrastive Analysis of Chinese and English Address Terms 145 An Interpretation of Initiation Theme in Heart of Darkness 146 《傲慢与偏见》中的婚姻
Symbolic Meanings of Babel in The Dogs of Babel 148 A Study on Subtitle Translation of Legal Films 149 从《红字》看霍桑的道德思想观
On the Integrative Use of Multiple Teaching Methods in Middle School English Class 151 论企业对员工过度压力的管理
152 从《一间自己的房间》看弗吉尼亚•伍尔夫的女性主义 153 英文谚语的文化场景在中译文中的缺失与弥合 154 《了不起的盖茨比》—美国梦的破灭 155 毛泽东诗词中典故翻译的对比研究 156 从文化角度看中美家庭教育的差异 157 英文电影中俚语的翻译策略
158 两种文化中不同的生存希望——以电影《肖申克的救赎》和《活着》人物命运分析为例
159 跨文化视角下研究英汉民俗词语的不等值翻译 160 中式英语成因之分析 161 英语语言中的性别歧视
162 浅谈文化差异对国际商务谈判的影响及对策 163 温和的反叛者——论《小妇人》中的女性群像 164 论《荆棘鸟》中的女性意识 165 跨文化背景下的广告翻译技巧 166 文化负迁移对翻译的影响
167 高中英语写作中母语负迁移现象分析
168 A Comparative Study of Inversion between English and Chinese 169 中美篮球背后的青年文化 170 论《看不见的人》的主人公的心理成长历程
171 天鹅的涅槃——以跨文化交际的角度解读《喜福会》中母女关系 172 浅析爱伦坡《乌鸦》的语音象征 173近年来汉语中英语借词的简析
174 《愤怒的葡萄》中圣经的象征和隐喻
175 从王尔德喜剧中的花花公子形象解读王尔德信奉的纨绔主义 176 英汉基本颜色词的文化内涵对比及其翻译
177 《红字》中的丁梅斯代尔和齐灵渥斯谁更“恶”?
178 生命不息,奋斗不止——海明威小说中的英雄伦理观和英雄形象研究 179 比较《百万英镑》和《阿Q正传》 180 超音段特征对意义的影响 181 中英文化差异与翻译策略
182 新闻英语中的委婉语及其翻译策略 183 试析英语谚语中的性别歧视
184 简•奥斯汀《诺桑觉寺》中人物对爱情和婚姻的不同态度 185 浅谈商标的特点及其翻译 186 试论英语学习中的动机
187 试究中国古诗词英译中的常用技巧—以《发如雪》为例
188 A Thousand Splendid Suns: from the Perspective of Initiation Story 189 企业英文简介中的概念语法隐喻分析
190 以马斯洛需求层次理论分析《傲慢与偏见》中的爱情婚姻观 191 试析中英婚姻生活差异及其原因 192
193 紫色中女人意识的觉醒
194 论礼貌制约下You-attitude在英语商务信函中的用法 195 跨文化交际中的中西方时间观念
196 跨文化交际中英语副语言的表现和交际功能
197 从《悲悼三部曲》看尤金•奥尼尔对古希腊悲剧的继承性超越 198 论D.H.劳伦斯诗歌中的救赎意识 199 《呼啸山庄》的哥特式传统
第五篇:英语中对女性性别歧视语言的词汇特征
英语中对女性性别歧视语言的词汇特征
减小字体 增大字体 作者:张 娜 来源:考试周刊 发布
时间:2007-11-03 关键字:英语 女性 性别歧视 语言 词汇
摘要:本文从熟语和人名两个方面,运用举例、对比等方法,探讨了英语中对女性性别歧视语言的词汇特征。
关键词:性别歧视 熟语 人名 词汇特征引言
性别歧视是以性别为基础而产生的一种歧视现象,是一个性别成员对另一个性别成员的歧视,既包括对女性的歧视,也包括对男性的歧视,实际上常指对女性的歧视。性别歧视反映在语言中就形成了语言性别歧视。语言中的性别歧视观点是在揭示了语言的不对称现象以后提出来的。语言学家们相信,受宗教法规、等级制度等制约的文化环境中的语言,反映的是男性世界图景的本质内容—男性属于中心地位,而女性的形象却是残缺不全。文化伴随意义,语言国情学研究的一个重要方面是受民族文化制约(即形式上来表现)的附属义,主要包括潜在的感情色彩和评价色彩,两者相互联系,其总和概括地体现了人们对事物现象的褒贬态度(顾亦谨,1991:23-4)。词汇与社会发展的关系最密切,透过词汇的文化伴随意义,可以看到文化里渗透的性别歧视。本文将从熟语、人名两个方面谈谈英语中对女性性别歧视语言的词汇特征。女性性别歧视语言的词汇特征
2.1熟语
熟语按其性质可分成谚语、俗语等六类(王德春,1997:144)。本文仅讨论前两类。
2.1.1 谚语
谚语是人类智慧的结晶,语言简洁的化身。语言学家把它形象地比喻为“民族之明镜”,“语言活化石”(杨永林,1987:37)。谚语作为观念文化的产物和语言的组成部分,无疑会折射出性别歧视的思想意识。
汉语里的“三个女人一台戏”说的就是女人多嘴多舌,英语里也有类似的说法:Three women and a goose make a market.在英语谚语里,描写女人多言的谚语似乎跟鹅结下了不解之缘。比如:Many women, many words;many geese, many turds(鹅的粪多,女人的话多);Where there are women and geese, there wants no noise(有女人有鹅,把耳朵都能吵破)。(徐超墀,1983)
夫妻关系中对女性歧视表现得尤为突出,比如:A woman, a dog and a walnut tree, the more you beat them, the better they are.(拳脚之下出好妻,棍棒之下有义犬,核树敲打结果多。)The house goes mad when women gad.(女人爱闲荡,一家乱纷纷。)Smoke, rain and a very crusty wife make a man weary of house and life.(烟熏、雨漏、泼辣妇,使人厌世家难住。)(徐超墀,1983)
2.1.2俗语
现代美国俗语里,对女性的性别歧视表现为把女人比作食物、植物、动物。有些词乍看挺美,但实际上语义双关。这与女人的外貌、性别及年龄密切相关。随着年龄的增长,容颜的苍老,所用的词也发生变化,含有轻蔑、讽刺、厌恶之意了。可见女人处在被供养、观赏、品尝和玩弄的地位,女性的重要性仅仅在于美丽、年轻和性方面。下面对“The book of slang”(1983)中出现的带有对女性性别歧视的词汇进行分类。
2.1.2.1比喻食物
peach 桃子;漂亮女子;cherry樱桃;处女;sweet-pie甜馅饼;情人;tart果馅饼;妓女;举止轻佻的女子;cheesecake干酪饼;富于性感的裸体女人像;mutton羊肉;做少女打扮的老妪;tomato西红柿;妓女;漂亮女子
2.1.2.2比喻植物
blossom花;女人;daisy雏菊;漂亮姑娘;rose玫瑰;极其美丽可爱的女子;rosebud玫瑰花苞;漂亮姑娘;初入社交界的女子;clinging vine有藤蔓的植物;依赖男子的女子;wall flower墙头花;舞会中无舞伴的女子;shrinking violet蜷缩的紫罗兰;羞怯的女子。与此相反,男人的角色主动、刚毅、果敢,难以想象有谁把男人与花朵联系在一起。唯一能侮辱男人的就是骂他象个女人似的:pansy(三色紫罗兰,无大丈夫气的男子)
2.1.2.3比喻动物
人们用动物比喻男人和女人,并把自己的好恶和褒贬也带进了这种比喻。由动物的形象及其比喻引起的联想常能产生各种各样受民族文化制约的附加意义。这种附加意义反映的就是民族心理特征以及民族风俗和伦理道德观念。
cat猫;心地恶毒的女人;bitch母狗;坏女人 淫妇;crone老母羊;干瘪的老太婆;butterfly蝴蝶;轻浮的人(尤指女人);bat蝙蝠;妓女;dragon龙;严厉固执的女人;heifer小母牛 漂亮姑娘; shrew地鼠;泼妇;悍妇。
美国作家Nilson.A.P.(1982)曾将女人的一生用chicken metaphor来描述,英文如下:In her youth, she is a chick, then she marries and begins feeling cooped up, so she goes to hen parties where she cackles with her friends.Then she has her brood and begins to henpeck her husband.Finally she turns into an old biddy.幼时,她是一位可爱的小女孩,长大后结了婚,开始有种被关进鸡笼里个感觉,于是她去参加妇女集会,在那里唧唧喳喳与女友们说个没完。再后来,生了孩子,开始象母鸡啄米一样无休止地谴责丈夫。最后,她成了一位十足的长舌妇。
这段话用一连串绝妙的双关语,形象地描写了女人的一生,其中几个“关键词”都与鸡有关。如chick(小鸡;小女孩;年轻的女子),coop(把鸡关进笼子;受束缚),cackle(母鸡下蛋时咯咯叫;形容女人嘀嘀咕咕地讲),hen parties(母鸡群;妇女集会),brood((鸡等)一窝;小孩),henpeck(鸡啄米;“妻管严”),biddy(母鸡;长舌妇)。
2.2人名
从表面看,人名只是人们用语言区别人的特定标志,每个人名都有具体的确定所指,千万个人名只是相区别的语言个体存在。实际上,无论是人名的外在形式还是内在含义,都与相应的社会文化紧密相关。(顾亦谨,1991:77)
2.2.1名字的文化内涵
2.2.1.1名字的含义
“人名是各族人民历史的一部分,它们反映了各族人民的风俗、信仰、希冀、向往和艺术创造以及它们与历史的联系(顾亦谨,1991:77)”。因此,名字在一定程度上代表了社会的观念,反映出父母对男孩、女孩的不同期望。人们普遍认为女子名应该表现出女性的美丽、温柔与“贤妻良母”的气质(刘晓民,1998:89),所以女性常以花卉、小动物和珠宝为名,以显其娇气、嫩弱、依赖、爱惜、呵护,供人欣赏、受人珍藏等被动意味。如:花卉Rose, Lily, Violet;小动物Faw, Salmon, Vanessa;珠宝Ruby, Jewel, Crystal, Diamond, Margaret等。
2.2.1.2名字的短暂性
女性在年幼时,是父亲的daughter,从父姓;长大了,就成了某某人的girl friend;结了婚,按照惯例,不仅要放弃姓,有时甚至是名字。当妇女无权拥有自己的“姓氏”,无权拥有自己家族的“姓氏”时,无形中就强化了女人是男人的财产这样一种观念(Spender D.,1985:24-5)。比如在美国,一个叫Mary William的女子和一个叫Henry James的男子结婚后,Mary William的名和姓完全被取消了,她从此被称为Mrs James。丈夫死后,妇女仍得保留夫姓,若是再嫁,又得换后来丈夫的姓。
即使出了名,享有较高的社会地位,也没有多大改变,如大名鼎鼎的英国前首相Mrs.Thatchel(撒切尔夫人),虽为铁娘子,但人们也只知她是Mrs.Thatchel, 而真正的姓氏却鲜为人知。上任美国总统Klinton的夫人原来也是一位婚后坚持用娘家姓的“解放了的妇女”,为了帮助丈夫竞选总统,才改用夫姓。对她来说,这大概是为丈夫的事业所做的最尴尬的牺牲。更换姓名的传统,反映了美国女性是男人的附属品,没有选择自己姓名的权利。
2.2.2名字的作用
在英语语言中对女性的性别歧视表现在一些表示女性和女孩名称的词,经常被用来指称一些令人厌恶的事物。如:南美洲有一种毒性很大的蜘蛛,交配后将雄蜘蛛吃掉,英语中称其为black widow spider。
在美国,过去常以女性的名字来给飓风命名。二战期间,美国海陆军气象人员首次以女孩名字按字母顺序为太平洋上爆发的飓风命名。该方法于1952年被美国气象局采用。第一张飓风名单为“Alice Barbara, Carol, Dolly, Edna, Florence, Gilda, Hazel, Irene, Jill, Katherine, Lucy, Mabel, Norma, Orpha, Queen, Rachel, Susie, Tina, Una, Vicky and Walis”。破坏性很大的飓风称为Hurricane Betty。气象局用女孩名字命名飓风的做法曾引起许多妇女的不满和抗议,因为名字与飓风雷同的女性受到了人们的取笑,并由此造成生活中的麻烦和苦恼(夏决芬、陈晓珊,1999:71)。
有些毒品的名称也冠上了女性的名字。在Judith S.Neaman %26 Carole G.Silver写的“A Thesaurus of Euphemisms”(1983)一书的“(服毒后的)幻觉与幻觉者“中,一共有20个词语,其中5个用来描写女性,1个描写男性,中性14个。如用Mary, Mary Jane, Mary Anne, Mary Warner婉指大麻毒品marijuana;用 White Lady, Old Lady White 婉指可卡因毒品cocaine;用White Nurse, Miss Emma婉指毒品吗啡morphine,而男性名称婉指毒品的只有Boy一词,人们用它婉指毒品海洛因heroin。
通过对女性名字用途的考察,我们也找到了女性受歧视的痕迹。
小结
本文从歧视女性这一角度,从熟语和人名两个方面,运用举例、对比等方法探讨了英语中对女性性别歧视语言的词汇特征。性别歧视的研究对我们有很大的启发。语言是用来表达思想的,它反映着操这种语言的民族的文化。学习语言,不仅要掌握语言符号,还要掌握符号里蕴涵的民族文化信息。只有这样,才能真正掌握语言,充分发挥其交际工具的作用。
参考文献:
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