第一篇：从合作原则看茶馆
从“合作原则”的违反看老舍《茶馆》对话的弦外之音
杨林 金鑫
内容提要 格赖斯的“合作原则”是人们言语交际活动中的重要准则，但是交际中故意违反合作原则的现象是很常见的。违反合作原则的原因有很多，例如礼貌、幽默以及修辞效果等。戏剧作品中的对话为了特殊的会话含义，为了营造艺术效果，往往是要违反“合作原则”的。老舍的《茶馆》就充满了这种违反“合作原则”的对话，不但没有影响对话的正常进行，反人物的心理性格和故事的主题。关键词 老舍；《茶馆》；戏剧对话
一、引言
老舍的《茶馆》是中国话剧史上长盛不衰的经典作品。尤其是剧中的对话更是耐人寻味，具有丰富的会话含意和弦外之音。美国语言学家格赖斯(H.P.Grice)的“合作原则”要求说话双方互相理解，互相配合，使对话能够顺利进行下去。通过对《茶馆》对话分析得出，在文学作品中，尤其是戏剧作品中，违反“合作原则”不但不会影响对话的正常进行，反而会增加对话的会话含义(conversationalimplicature)[1]，使对话更加生动、有趣、耐人寻味。在一定程度上，反映人物性格特征和当时的历史背景，体现故事的深刻主题。本文借鉴语用学中的“合作原则”来分析《茶馆》戏而增加了对话的深义，深刻地反映了社会背景，生动地揭示了剧的对话特点，为文学评论，特别是戏剧评论提供一个新的视角。
二、合作原则的违反及其原因
美国语言学家格赖斯的(H.Grice)认为，“在所有的语言交际活动中为了达到特定的目标，会话双方存在着一种默契，要遵守一些基本原则，使双方在会话中相互配合，以达到相互理解的目的，并使得他们能够持续地进行有意义的语言交际，这就是合作原则(cooperative principle，简称CP)”。“合作原则”的具体内容是四条准则(maxims)：“
1、量准则(maxim of quantity)：所说的话应含当前交谈目的所需要的信息；所说的话不应含超出需要的信息。
2、质准则(maxim of quality)：不要说你相信是虚假的话；不要说证据不足的话。
3、关系准则(maximof relation)：要有关联，即说话要切题。
4、方式准则(maxim of manner)：要清楚明白———说话要简练；避免晦涩；避免歧义；井井有条。”[1]71许多语言学家都认为“合作原则”为语用学的研究提供了新的思路和领域，但是我们经常发现在现实生活中更多的违反“合作原则”的例子。合作原则是语用学研究的一个重大突破，但这几条规则毕竟是约定俗成的规约，不是不可违反的。那么人们为什么要违反合作原则而拐弯抹角来表达自己的真实意图呢？
会话中违反合作原则的一个原因是礼貌原则(politeness principle，简称PP)。1983年英国著名的语言学家利奇继格赖斯的合作原则(CP)提出了另一条语用原则———礼貌原则(politeness principle)。这套准则解释说人们有意违反合作原则，是因为礼貌和面子的需要。说话人为了顾及听话人的面子，使用会话含义将自己的真意含蓄地表达出来。会话中违反合作原则也可能是修辞格。修辞格反语、隐喻、缓叙、夸张、修辞问句从字面上看是明显违反了会话原则的质量准则，产生了特殊的会话含义，使语言更具有艺术性。使用修辞格的目的常常为了通过使用比较含蓄的语言来表达比较强烈的语气，或是为了更加生动地表达说话人的隐含意思。“反语、隐喻、缓叙、夸张、修辞句从字面上看是明显违反了会话原则的质量原则，却产生了特殊的会话含义，实际上是质量准则的变异用法”[2]117，会话中违反合作原则的另一个原因是由于幽默。合作原则中的每一个准则都可能违反合作原则，从而产生幽默的效果。
但是本文认为，除过上述三种违反情况以外，戏剧作品中的会话违反合作原则更具有其深意。戏剧作品中的对话并不是随意堆砌起来的，而是作家用来反映人物的心理性格、社会背景、故事主题的有效手段。
三、违反合作原则在《茶馆》对话中的应用
分析老舍茶馆的对话，我们可以从人物性格特征、社会背景和故事主题这三方面来揭示老舍《茶馆》的对话是如何营造特殊含义，发挥艺术效果的。
(一)人物特征
《茶馆》立体地向读者展示了70多个形形色色的人物形象，例如正直的满人常四爷、财大气粗一心想通过变法来改变中国的秦仲义、贩卖人口专干黑心生意的刘麻子等等。在众多人物角色中，最富有艺术色彩也是故事中心人物的便是茶馆的老板王利发。“王利发是旧社会中一个精明、干练而又自私、圆滑、怕事、富有混事经验，一心想往上爬的小资产阶级小商人的典型。王利发所处的这种社会地位就决定了他的性格特征的两面性，既不满帝国主义、封建军阀、国民党反动派，但与劳动人民又有很远的距离”。[2]51在《茶馆》许多对话中，有许多处都能体现王利发的性格，而这些对话又恰恰违反了“合作原则”中的某些准则，产生了特殊的会话含义。比如下面这段王利发与财主秦仲义的对话就从侧面体现了王利发的性格。
(1)秦仲义：来看看，看看你这年轻小伙子会做生意不会!王利发：唉，一边作一边学吧，指着这个吃饭嘛。谁叫我爸爸死的早，我不干不行啊!好在照顾主儿都是我父亲的老朋友，我有不周到的地方，都肯包涵，闭闭眼就过去了。在街面上混饭吃，人缘儿顶要紧。我按着我父亲遗留下的老办法，多说好话，多请安，讨人人的喜欢，就不会出大岔子!您坐下，我给您沏碗小叶茶去!秦仲义只是问王利发会不会做生意，王利发只需说“会”或“不会”，便完成了言语交际。但是王利发却说“一边作一边学吧，指着这个吃饭嘛”，违反了关系准则(要有关联，即说话要切题)。随后，王利发又说了一大堆不需要的信息，“好在照顾主儿都是我父亲的老朋友，我有不周到的地方，都肯包涵，闭闭眼就过去了”，“我按着我父亲遗留下的老办法，多说好话，多请安，讨人人的喜欢，就不会出大岔子!”。这些话与秦仲义的问题毫不相关，超出所需要的信息，违反了“量的准则”(所说的话不应含超出需要的信息)。但是从这些违反了“合作原则”的话中，我们可以看出王利发。为人圆滑，深谙人情世故，对像秦仲义这样的财主，王利发陪笑脸、说好话，是一个非常典型的小商人形象。
(2)王利发：您自己拿着这笔吧，我马上就搬家啦!常四爷：搬到哪里去？
王利发：哪儿不一样呢!秦二爷、常四爷，我跟你们不一样：二爷财大业大心胸大，树大可就招风啊!四爷你，一辈子不服软，敢作敢当，专打抱不平。我呢，作了一辈子顺民，见谁都请安、鞠躬、作揖。我只盼着呀，孩子们有出息，冻不着，饿不着，没灾没病!可是，日本人在这儿，二栓子逃跑啦，老婆想儿子想死啦!好容易，日本人走啦，该缓一口气吧？谁知道，(惨笑)哈哈，哈哈，哈哈!
常四爷问王利发准备搬到哪里，王利发只需说“哪儿不一样呢”，便完成了言语交际。但是王利发又说了一堆与搬家毫不相关的话。王利发的回答违反了“量的准则”(所说的话应含当前交谈目的所需要的信息)。但是，从看似不需要的话中，我们可以看到一个“顺民”王利发。“我呢，作了一辈子顺民，见谁都请安、鞠躬、作揖。我只盼着呀，孩子们有出息，冻不着，饿不着，没灾没病!”。这些话都可以揭示王利发的性格是软弱的，一辈子只希望通过改良来维持茶馆的生意。王利发的性格具有两面性，一方面他不满于军阀、封建主义、帝国主义的压迫，但另一方面他又害怕革命，明哲保身。
(二)社会背景
特殊的会话含义不仅揭示了人物性格，也反映了当时的社会背景。王利发的裕泰茶馆在当时的中国正是反映社会现实的窗口，通过戊戌变法的失败、军阀混战的民国初年、抗日战争胜利后的内战前夕三个历史阶段，揭露了半封建半殖民地中国社会的腐朽与黑暗，猛烈地抨击了清王朝以及新旧军阀鱼肉百姓的反动统治，鞭挞了帝国主义强盗的巧取豪夺，真实地反映了处于水深火热中的广大劳动人民的苦难生活。从下面这段对话中，我们可以看到当时的中国笼罩在帝国主义的黑暗统治之下，甚至洋人的走狗都在劳动人民身上作威作福。
(3)马五爷：(并未站起)二德子，你威风啊!二德子：(四下扫视，看到马五爷)喝，马五爷，您在这儿哪？我可眼拙，没看见您!(过去请安)马五爷：有什么事好好地说，干吗动不动地就讲打？ 二德子：您说的对!我到后头坐坐去。李三，这儿的茶钱我候啦!(往后面走去)常四爷：(凑过来，要对马五爷发牢骚)这位爷，您圣明，您给评评理!马五爷：(立起来)我还有事，再见!(走出去)常四爷：(对王利发)邪!这倒是个怪人!王利发：您不知道这是马五爷呀？怪不得您也得罪了他!常四爷：我也得罪了他？我今天出门没挑好日子!王利发：(低声说)刚才您说洋人怎样，他就是吃洋饭的。信洋教，说洋话，有事情可以一直地找宛平县的县太爷去，要不怎么连官面上都不惹他呢!
常四爷希望马五爷为他评评理，说“这位爷，您圣明，您给评评理”，但是马五爷的回答与评理毫不相关，“我还有事，再见”。马五爷的话违反了关系准则(要有关联，即说话要切题)。从后文王利发的话中，我们得知马五爷是“吃洋饭的。信洋教，说洋话，有事情可以一直地找宛平县的县太爷去，要不怎么连官面上都不惹他呢”。王利发的话从侧面反映了当时的中国受帝国主义的压迫，老百姓都害怕洋教，受着洋人的统治，连卖国贼都欺负善良的老百姓。
(三)故事主题
《茶馆》中的对话具有很高的艺术性，是因为当中的语言都包含着会话含义。虽然违反了合作原则，但却更加深刻地反映了故事主题。“会话含意将普通的老百姓日常对话奇妙升腾为一个巨大的政治隐喻，成为旧中国五十年精神风貌、三个黑暗历史时代的象征。轻松自然的日常话语层面与意义深邃的政治精神话语层面融合得浑然无间，戏剧人物在谈笑风生中成功地表现了旧中国社会自戊戌变法失败以来近半个世纪的滑稽和悲剧、黑暗与腐朽，举重若轻地完成了‘埋葬旧中国三个黑暗时代’宏大政治主题的表达”。[4]50
(4)庞太监：哟!秦二爷!秦仲义：庞老爷!这两天你心里安顿了吧？
庞太监：那还用说吗？天下太平了：圣旨下来了，谭嗣同问斩!告诉你，谁敢改祖宗的章程，谁就掉脑袋!秦仲义：我早就知道了。
[茶客们忽然全寂静起来，几乎是闭住呼吸地听着。] 庞太监：您聪明，二爷，要不然你怎么发财呢!秦仲义：我那点财产，不值一提!庞太监：太客气了吧？您看，全北京城谁不知道秦二爷!您比做官的还厉害呢!听说呀，好些财主都讲维新!秦仲义：不能这么说，我那点威风在您的面前可就施展不出来了!哈哈哈!庞太监：说的好，咱们就八仙过海，各显其能吧!哈哈哈!秦仲义：改天过去给你请安，再见!庞太监：(自言自语)哼，凭这么个小财主也敢跟我逗嘴皮子，年头真是改了!
开头的礼貌问候：“呦，秦二爷!”是中国典型的问候语，后一句秦仲义只需说“庞太爷!”完成交际中的礼貌应答，但是他故意违反了会话原则中的“量”的原则，多问了“这两天您心里安顿了吧？”，传达了维新派对封建守旧派杀戊戌六君子的愤恨和反讽之情。同样庞太监面对秦仲义的问话只需回答“那还用说吗？天下太平了：圣旨下来，谭嗣同问斩!”就符合言语交际的要求，但他也违背“量的原则”，多说了“告诉您，谁敢改祖宗的章程，谁就掉脑袋!”其用意是警告秦仲义不许再搞什么改良运动。面对警告，秦仲义不甘示弱说“我早就知道!”。这段对话的会话含义揭示了新生的革命派与封建顽固派的明争暗斗，在最后一句庞太监的自言自语“凭这么个小财主也敢跟我逗嘴皮子，年头真是改了”，点明了整个故事的主题，那就是革命力量必然取代腐败的统治，封建社会必然走向灭亡。老舍用庞太监的一句话点明了整个故事的政治隐喻。
老舍在故事的结尾，运用了一个隐喻来揭示社会主义必然取得胜利，劳动人民必然获得自由的政治主题。
(5)王大栓：大婶，我爸爸叫您走吗？
康顺子：他还没打好了主意。我倒怕呀，大力回来的事儿万一叫人家知道了啊，我又忽然这么一走，也许要连累了你们!这年月不是天天抓人吗？我不能作对不起你们的事!周秀花：大婶，您走您的，谁逃出去谁得活命!喝茶的不是常低声儿说：想要活命得上西山[北京西山一带当时是八路军的游击区]吗？
王大栓：对!康顺子：小花的妈，来吧，咱们再商量商量!我不能专顾自己，叫你们吃亏!老大，你也好好想想!(同周秀花下)
王大栓极力想挽留康顺子，但是康顺子不想“连累”他们，她说“我不能作对不起你们的事”。周秀花客气地说道：“大婶，您走您的，谁逃出去谁得活命”，便完成了言语交际。但是她又多说：“想要活命得上西山[北京西山一带当时是八路军的游击区]吗”，违反了“量的准则”(不要说不需要的信息)。但是，通过周秀花的会话含义，我们可以推出当时老百姓都相信只有共产党可以救他们。老舍正是通过一个普通老百姓的对话揭示了故事的主题，那就是只有共产党才能救中国。
通过对老舍《茶馆》的对话分析，我们可以看出，《茶馆》中有许多对话都违反了合作原则，从而产生了一定的会话含义。会话含义一定程度上揭示了主人公的性格特征，侧面体现当时中国落后、国力空虚的惨痛现实，并深刻揭示故事的主题。那就是依靠改良、变法挽救不了中国的命运，中国人只有自己站起来反抗，才会有出路。从一定侧面揭示了作者自己的政治主题，那就是，依靠改良和变法是不能挽救中国走向灭亡的命运，而只有劳动人民和被剥削者自己站起来反抗，只有社会主义才可以救中国的潜在政治主题。
四、结论
通过以上《茶馆》对话的分析，可以得出这样的结论：违反“合作原则”，不但不会影响对话的正常进行，反而会增加对话的会话含意，使对话更加生动、有趣、耐人寻味，能在一定程度上反映人物性格特征和社会背景，体现故事的深刻主题。老舍正是通过会话含意将普普通通的老百姓日常对话奇妙升腾为一个巨大的政治隐喻，成为旧中国50年精神风貌、三个黑暗历史时代的象征。在普通中窥见宏大，在一般中窥见深邃。希望通过本文的调查能够为研究文学语言，特别是戏剧对话提供新的视角和途径。为进一步研究文学语言，特别是戏剧语言提供一个新的窗口和途径。
[参考文献]
[1]何自然.语用学概论[M].长沙：湖南教育出版社，1987.[2]蒋祖国.浅谈合作原则的变异性[J].广西民族学院学报，2002(5).[3]许明.浅谈老舍剧本《茶馆》中的人物———王利发[J].中山大学学报：哲学社会科学版，2001(1).[4]赖翅萍.日常会话与宏大叙事———《茶馆》的语用学解读兼及十七年文学的叙事方式[J].北京科技大学学报：社会科学版，2003(2).中图分类号： I234 文献标识码： A 文章编号： 1672-4283(2006)Sup.-0147-04
作者简介：
杨林(1963—)，男，陕西西安市人，西北工业大学人文与经法学院副教授。
(西北工业大学人文与经法学院，陕西西安710072)
原载：《陕西师范大学学报》(哲学社会科学版)2006年3月第35卷专辑
第二篇：从九型人格看团队合作
从九型人格看团队合作 —何岸《中国合伙人》观
后感
从九型人格看团队合作—何岸《中国合伙人》观后感
利用端午小假，终于抽点时间走进影院，看了这部创业励志的影片《中国合伙人》。我被这三个主人公鲜明的性格所吸引，更感悟到优秀成功的团队，需要从九型人格的角度分析并合理的搭配。
影片中的成东青是一个典型的6号忠诚型，他勤奋努力，待人真诚，但却不自信、没有安全感。他被逼无奈，只好贴小广告办培训班，来挣钱养活自己。但如果没有孟晓骏的加入，成东青可能会一直贴小广告，办自己的培训班，他可能觉得这样的生活也很不错。我们再说说孟晓骏，他是一个典型的3号成功型，他目标执着，不甘于现状。有了他的加入，打破了6号往日的安逸，并且为了梦想发生了团队冲突。也正因为3号的加入，才有了“新梦想”的诞生及成功。
那么，是不是3号的成东青与6号的孟晓骏搭伙最合理呢？影片中也看到了，他们的冲突不断。这样的团队中，必须有一个磨合调节的人，那就是九型人格中的9号调停型或者是7号快乐型。影片中有另一个合伙人王阳，就是7号快乐型。只要觉得是快乐的事，他就会做。就像影片中王阳陪成东青冒雨贴培训班的小广告时，他觉得这件有趣的事，所以去做，而此时的成东青贴小广告的动机却是为了生计、为了找到安全感。有了快乐的7号，也使3号和6号的冲突有所缓和，更能冷静地思考“新梦想”的未来。
好的团队，需要好的搭配，何岸认为这里面有很多九型人格的学问。性格互补，合理搭配，才能打造出更多的合伙团队。
塔机企管部马文龙
第三篇：从《文心雕龙.原道》篇看儒家文学观
从《文心雕龙·原道》篇看儒家文学观 摘要：《文心雕龙·原道》篇到底反映出作者什么样的文学观历来众说纷纭，有人从道家思想出发，认为作者是道家文学观；有人从儒家思想出发，认为作者是儒家文学观；有人甚至认为作者表现的是佛学思想。笔者查阅了大量资料，结合自己的看法认为刘勰在作此篇时，应持有的是儒家传统的“尚文”、“尚用”文学观。
关键词：儒家尚文尚用宗经征圣
《原道》为《文心雕龙》五十篇之首，其主要内容为探究文的根源。作为儒教忠诚信徒的刘勰其根本观点从某种程度上代表了儒家的文学观，从而在那个时代产生了文学批评回归传统的牵引力。下面就分别从几个方面来谈谈这个话题。
一、传统的儒家文学观
先秦时期王道失而霸业兴，群雄角力之间为了扩展自己的势力范围纷纷招兵买马引进人才。有志之士各怀一技之长行走于诸候间。为了推销自己，扩大影响力各自著书立说成为百家。一时间学术氛围异常浓厚，出现了一批批职业学者我们称之为“士”。“儒”本身就是文学专业的士，那么作为文学之士的儒对文学的基本观点是些什么呢？
1、“尚文”和“尚用”的文学观
现代的哲学史家们认为重实用、重道德是中国哲学的最大特点，其实中国文学又何尝不是如此?重文学的政治教化之用正是儒家文学观念一以贯之的显著特点。“文以载道”这一命题集中体现了儒家文学观念的功利主义诉求，其形成有着一个漫长的历史过程，对包括新文学在内的中国文学有着深远而复杂的影响。孔子的文艺思想是儒家文论的源头。他很看重诗文作为表达工具的功能。《论语·季氏》：“不学《诗》，无以言。”《左传·襄公二十五年》记孔子的话云：“言之不文,行之不远。”他的意思是说,学诗是为了讲话有文采；话说得漂亮才能更有利于道理的传播。不过孔子更重视文学对于修身的意义，这与他教书先生的身份有关。《阳货》篇谓：“子曰：小子何莫夫学诗?诗可以兴，可以观,可以群,可以怨。迩之事父，远之事君，多识于草木鸟兽之名。”“兴”的意思是启示、感发；“观”意为通过诗来考察政治的得失和风俗的盛衰；“群”是沟通感情,增进团结；“怨”即批评时政,抒发怨情。这里说的是学诗对于修身的好处。学诗既然有这么多的好处,那也就是诗的功用了。2“文道合一”的文学观
对文的孜孜追求同时表现了儒士们处世求达和极积入世的人生态度。之所以要有言，言之所以要行而远之，从表面上看是追求言的影响力从而达到某种功能上的意义，实际上这也是一种实用主义思潮。折射出的是儒士们“有为”的人生追求。为这一理想 “上下求索”，甚至“知其不可而为之”。这就是他们心中的“道”，并且要求“文”和“道”达到高度的统一，这一对“道”的信仰实际上已化作他们“入世”事业的行为规范，表现在他们的言行举止上，成为激励一代代儒士们自觉的思想认识。
二、刘勰心中的文道观
纪昀在眉批《原道》时说“文以载道，明其当然，文原于道，明其本然。识其本乃不逐其末。”借此，我们可以将刘氏的观点归纳为两点：一是文原于道，二是文以明道。关于第一点从文题即可看出，刘氏认为大自然之所以五彩缤纷、丰富多彩皆源于道。“玄黄色杂，方圆体分。日月叠壁，山川焕绮。”此皆“道之文也”。自然万品“动植皆文”。文之广、之大，天、地、人、文皆源于道，道是造世主。
谈文而论道表明了作者探究文源的思想倾向，援道论文表明了作者的基本观点即“文源于道”。不仅如此，作者还认为自然万物皆源于道。这里便有了客观唯心主义的思想了。如同黑格尔心中的“绝对理念”,在客观世界抽象出一种精神元素，说它是万物之母，玄得像道家头脑里概念，“道可以生无，无可以生有，有可以生万物”。但刘勰的思想毕竟和道家隔了一层。“人文之元，肇自太极，庖牺画其始，仲尼翼其后”。可见，“文源于道”并非无迹可寻。道也并非自然流成文，它们之间有一个桥梁，就是圣人。有了圣人，便可理出文道来。至此，诸君豁然，刘勰之所以将文说的如此玄之又玄甚，至不惜借道家思想来混淆视听，其目的只有一个，那就是要把圣人说的玄乎些，尽可能地把光环套在他们的头上。因为人们往往更容易相信和崇拜那些未知和神秘的东西，就连作者也不能够超脱。这就是文论的支柱之一“征圣”思想。
刘勰著《文心雕龙》之缘起，他自称：“齿在逾立,则尝夜梦执丹漆之礼器,随仲尼而南行。旦而寤，乃怡然而喜。大哉！圣人之难见也，乃小子之垂梦欤！自生人以来，未有如夫子者也。”迷崇孔子之心，追随孔子之志，溢于言表。
为什么要“征圣”呢？“征圣”的出路何在？
大家知道，作为中国传统文化主干的儒学，界定了文学的政治教化的社会功能与作用，形成了一套完整的儒家思想体系。所谓圣人就是儒家思想的发言人，他们代表着集团形象，理应受到集团内部的敬仰。那么如何追随?作者说道：“敷赞圣旨,莫若注经。而马、郑诸儒,弘之已精;就有深解,未足立家。唯文章之用,实经典枝条,五礼资之以成,六经因之致用,君臣所以炳焕,军国所以昭明。详其本源,莫非经典。”“文王患忧，《繇辞》炳曜。公旦多材，制《诗》缉《颂》。夫子继圣，熔钧《六经》。”这些都是所谓的圣道，圣道以经典呈现，圣道即在经典中。“征圣”的途径之一就是“宗经”。圣人经典曾经在历史上造就过非同凡响的号召力，产生过推枯拉朽的思想力量。这股力量激励着儒士们，使他们纷纷走出校门、走向社会，满腔热情、一股作气准备有所作为。而作为儒家忠实粉丝的刘勰也期盼着这种力量的复归，重塑
圣人事业。所以作者愿意宗经，也相信“宗经”的前途。说到底，追求儒家“有为”理想社会才是刘氏文论的出发点和落脚点，才是“文以明道”最终注脚。通过“写天地之辉光”的文，实现“晓生民之耳目”之现实追求。至此，我们可以梳理出一条线索出来。“道——文——道”。刘勰认为，万物源道，文亦源道，文因圣而生，圣因文而出，故文应明道。很显然这不是一个简单的回归问题，而是一个逻辑盘旋不断升华的过程。这两个“道”存在明显区别，前一个“道”是作者思想中不含任何价值成分和情感体验的观念元素，是作者主观世界上固有的，是一个混沌元气，是纯天然的。而后一个“道”则是圣人之道，是经过提炼的价值伦理观，有着明显的人工痕迹。两者之间的联结点便是“文”，操作手是“圣人”。圣人们自诞生那天起就肩负着重整社会统治秩序的重要历史使命，这也是儒士们自觉的社会责任意识，更是儒家思想中“尚文”和“尚用”思想的历史呼唤。
三、儒家文学观和其他学派的区别
１、儒家与道家文学观的区别
道家学派思想的逻辑起点是“无”，在“贵无”思想的支配下形成了“寡胜多，无胜有”哲学定律。他们认为茫茫人海，芸芸众生都应生活在原始社会，都应当自由自在而不应被人为的粗暴干涉。统治阶级应“无为”而治。“天地不仁，以万物为刍狗；圣人不仁，以百姓为刍狗。”“圣人不死，大盗不止。”社会之所以不治，都是圣人惹的祸。反映在文学上，道家认为，文和用没有直接关系，没必要给文强行下达社会任务，文应和世间万物一样自由自在的存在，不要受约束，就像人的思想一样，在广阔的时空里“任逍遥”。“ 北溟有鱼，其名为鲲。鲲之大，不知其几千里也。化而为鸟，其名为鹏。鹏之背。不知其几千里也。怒而飞，其翼若垂天之云，是鸟也，海运则将徒于南溟，南溟者，天池也。”所以道家的文章写起了扑朔迷离、漂泊不定，在自觉放弃文学的社会功能的同时给人以无边无际的空间美感，反而增添了文学性。这可能是20世纪二三十年代出现的“意识流”文学的思想滥觞。
显然这些都是儒士们不愿意看到的，这是圣人们无法容忍的事情。于是两派互相攻击，争论不止，喋喋不休。社会影响很深很广，引起有关部门注意，组织了几次公开辩论会。可能是因为儒家思想更符合部门利益，结果是作为正方的儒家险胜对手，而道家又回归到他们崇拜的大自然去了，继续着他们逍遥的梦。
儒士们经过这次学术辩论，士气大振，纷纷扼腕立志，认为大显身手的机会来来，更觉得社会可爱了，更觉得圣人可敬了，更觉得经典可读了，更觉得圣道可用了。理论是要不断发展和完善的（这一爱好古今同是）。《文心雕龙》就是儒家文学观在新的历史条件下的继承和发展，是被统治阶级证实了的科学的、好用的理论体系。在当时文学流派纷争、学术观点芜杂的情况下起到了文学批评上拨乱反正的作用。《原道》篇更是旗帜鲜明地指出儒派文学观
才是唯一正确的、与时俱进的文学观。号召社会各界多读儒家经典以便在实际文学创作和鉴赏中认真贯彻执行，形成指导方针。
2、儒家与墨家文学观的区别
比孔子稍后，成为另一派显学，就是墨家。《淮南子·要略》说“墨子学儒者之业，受孔子之术”，他和儒家本是比较接近的，但是他取的是反对的态度，至少也是批判的态度。近人称“墨子及其弟子是接近手工业者的士，也可以说是手工业者出身的知识分子”。所以孔子可以接受古代文化的诗书礼乐，而墨子只接受诗书而反对礼乐，把礼乐看作统治阶级的奢侈浪费，这样对于西周文化所谓制礼作乐这一点来讲是不合的，所以《要略》说他“背周道而用夏政”。
“郁郁乎文哉，吾从周”，这是孔子的态度，而墨子是背周道而用夏政的，所以儒家尚文，墨家便尚质。可是，他们毕竟都是“学儒者之业”的，毕竟也是属于“贤人作风”一流的，所以儒家尚用，墨家也尚用。
问题就在这儿：儒家文学观中的尚文与尚用是一致的，是不冲突的；墨家文学观中的尚质与尚用，当然也是一致的，也是不冲突的。可是他们却是不同阶级的发言人，思想的阶级基础不同，所以形成观点肯定是不一样的，那么区别到底在哪？我认为至少有以下几个点。
第一、对“用”的理解不同。因为他们的思想，他们的文学观并不矛盾，所以儒家的尚用和墨家的尚用也就不可能是同一意义。因此，我们可以这样说：儒家的尚用是“非功利”的尚用，是为复古的尚用，是为剥削阶级服务的用，更多地作用上层建筑，更多地作用于思想认识领域，用“君君、臣臣、父父、子子”的伦理和“纲常”信仰来重塑封建阶级道德体系。说到底是统治阶级思想意识的普教活动。“观天文以极变，察人文以成化，发挥事业，彪炳辞义”。欲把影响造得更大些，则进一步“原道心以设章，研神理而设教。取象乎河洛，问数乎蓍龟。”到这里便是鼓励人们去顶礼膜拜了，拜天拜君拜圣人。所以与尚文思想不相冲突，文也正就是用；墨家的尚用是绝对功利主义的尚用，是强调百姓人民之利的用，所以充其量可成为极端的尚质。这是儒墨文学观不同的一点。
其次对“文”的态度不同。前面说过儒家为了使其统治阶级思想外显，需作大量的粉饰工作，所以对文有着特殊的需要。另一方面，对文的重视可能还和士大夫的“阶级趣味”有关。作为一个高高在上的、完全脱离劳动生产的阶级，他们需要一种声音来美化自己，需要把“官腔官调”说的漂亮些来强化宣传效果。“道因圣以垂文，圣因文以明道”。这些任务自然而然落到了文学作品上，自然而然地对文学作品的审美性提出了要求。站着说话的人往往更容易把话说的漂亮些，而作为统治阶级的发言人的儒家也愿意站着说话。可是墨家则不同，他们从本阶级立场出发，反对以文害意。因为他们认为文学性太强的作品很容易分散人们的注意力从而导致对作品实用性的忽略。“昔秦伯嫁其女于晋公子，为之饰装，从文衣之媵七十人。至晋，晋人爱其妾而贱公女。此可谓善嫁妾而未可谓善嫁女也。楚人有卖其珠于郑者，为木兰之柜，熏以桂椒，缀以珠玉，饰以玫瑰，辑以羽翠。郑人买其椟而还其珠。此可谓善卖椟矣，未可谓善鬻珠也。今世之谈也，皆道辩说文辞之言，人主览其文而忘其用。墨子之说，传先王之道，论圣人之言，以宣告之；若辩其辞，则恐人怀其文，忘其用，直以文害用也。此与楚人鬻珠、秦伯嫁女同类。故其言多不辩。”这就是墨家这种尚用反文的文学观。
总之，儒家思想是刘氏文学思想的立足点和归结点。可以说他的整个文学思想体系是为儒家学派服务的，是儒家思想在那个时代的回光返照。为了实现这一目的，刘氏旁征博引、援古证今给文学披上了一层神秘而华丽的外衣。从此儒家“尚文”和“尚用”的文学思想得以香火不断，成为士大夫们宦海浮沉中一颗不灭的“马里亚纳海的爱情灯”。
参考文献：
袁济喜、陈建农 《文心雕龙解读》 中国人民大学出版社
郭绍虞《中国文学批评史》百花文艺出版社
缪文选《战国策》中华书局
从《文心雕龙·原道》篇看儒家文学观
（写作提纲）
一、序论
《文心雕龙·原道》篇到底反映出作者什么样的文学观历来众说纷纭，有人从道家思想出发，有人从儒家思想出发，有人甚至认为作者表现的是佛学思想。笔者查阅了大量资料，结合自己的看法认为刘勰在作此篇时，应持的是儒家传统的“尚文”、“尚用”文学观。
二、本论
（一）、传统的儒家文学观
1、“尚文”和“尚用”的文学观
2“文道合一”的文学观
（二）、刘勰心中的文道观
（三）、儒家文学观和其他学派的区别
１、儒家与道家文学观的区别
2、儒家与墨家文学观的区别
三、结论
总之，儒家思想是刘氏文学思想的立足点和归结点。可以说他的整个文学思想体系是为儒家学派服务的，是儒家思想在那个时代的回光返照。为了实现这一目的，刘氏旁征博引、援古证今给文学披上了一层神秘而华丽的外衣。从此儒家“尚文”和“尚用”的文学思想得以香火不断，成为士大夫们宦海浮沉中一颗不灭的“马里亚纳海的爱情灯”。
第四篇：从合作原则看英语委婉语研究
[Abstract] The word “euphemism” comes from the Greek, eu--means “good”, and –pheme-, “speech” or “saying”, and together it means literally “to speak with good words or in a pleasant manner”.Euphemism, as a cultural phenomenon as well as a linguistic concept, has attracted people’s attention for a long time.It has long been a topic of much interest.Generally speaking, people would use more euphemisms in communicating with the opposite sex;women would use more than men would;older people would use more than younger generations.people would more use euphemisms in “power” relations than in close relations.people with higher education would use more euphemisms.The above factors: age, sex, social status, education, etc.do not work separately.In communicating, they are interlaced with each other and guide our choice of euphemisms.Whether to use euphemisms or taboo words also depends, to a large extent, on the attitudes of participants(particularly speakers)and the purpose of conversations.The article consists of six parts.part one explains what the meaning of euphemism is.part two is saying the Cooperative principle in briefly.Cooperative principle, the cornerstone theory of pragmatics, is one of the main principles that guide people’s communication.The Cooperative principle and its maxims can explain what the literal meaning is and its real intention in communication and ensure that in an exchange of conversation.part three presents, the formation euphemism, namely, formal innovation, semantic innovation, rhetorical devices, and grammatical ways.part four discusses the communicative function of euphemism is substitution, politeness, disguise, defense, etc.part five serves as the main body of this article.Generally speaking, euphemisms violate the Quality, Quantity and Manner Maxim of the Cp due to different reasons like substitution, disguise etc.And basically euphemisms observe the Relation Maxim.From the analysis, it can be also found that sometimes an euphemism can be regarded as violation of two maxims of the Cp at the same time.part six concludes the whole article.[Key Words] Cooperative principle;Euphemism;Communicative function
【摘 要】委婉语(euphemism)一词起源于希腊语。Eu意思是“好的”，pheme意思是“话语”，因此字面上的意思是说好听的话或用礼貌的方式说话。委婉语是一个语言学概念，同时也是一种文化现象，长久以来一直受到人们的关注。总体上讲人们在与异性进行言语交际时，要比在同性面前更多地使用委婉语，女性要比男性更多地使用委婉语，年长的人要比年青的人更多地使用委婉语。人们在“权势关系”的语境中往往要比在“亲密关系”的语境中更多地使用委婉语。受教育程度越高的人，越注意自己的言谈，因而更多地使用委婉语。上述因素年龄、性别、社会地位、教育等并不孤立存在，在交际中，他们交织在一起决定着委婉语的使用。是否使用委婉语还要考虑说话者的态度和交谈的目的。文章由六个部分组成。第一部分解释了什么是委婉语。第二部分简单列出合作原则的各项原则。它作为语用学的理论基石之一，是指导人们语言交际的原则之一。它可以很好地解释话语的字面意义和实际意义的关系，这对于交际委婉语显得尤为重要。第三部分说明委婉语的构成可以有很多种方式：形式变化，语义变化，修辞手段和语法手段。第四部分阐述了交际委婉语出于替代、掩饰、和礼貌等功能。第五部分是文章的主体，并说明委婉语出于替代、掩饰、和礼貌等原因主要违反了合作原则中的质、量和方式三个次则，基本上是遵循了合作原则中的相关原则。第六部分总结全文。
【关键字】合作原则;委婉语;交际功能
1.Introduction
In the Oxford Advanced Learner’s English – Chinese Dictionary the explanation of Euphemism is “(example of the)use of pleasant, mild or indirect words or phrases in place of more accurate or direct ones”[1].And in the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English the explanation of Euphemism is “(an example of)the use of a pleasanter, less direct name for something thought to be unpleasant”[2].For example, the man who wants to us to call him a “sanitation engineer” instead of a “garbage man” is hoping we will treat him with more respect than we presently do.“The word 'euphemism' comes from the Greek eu meaning 'good' and pheme meaning 'speech' or 'saying', and thus means literally 'to speak with good words or in a pleasant manner'”[3].Euphemisms have various reasons for existence.They conceal the things people fear the most—death, the dead, the supernatural.They cover up the facts of life—of sex and reproduction and excretion—which inevitably remind even the most refined people that they are made of clay, or worse.They are beloved by individuals and institutions(governments, especially)that are anxious to present only the handsomest possible images of themselves to the world.And they are imbedded so deeply in our language that few of us, even those who pride themselves on being plainspoken, ever get through a day without using them.But some people still mistake the euphemisms in the conversation by the Cooperative principle.Violating the Cp, people also can continue the conversation with euphemisms, which make the author interest in attitudes of participants and the purpose of conversation.That is our body today.2.Formation of euphemisms
2.1 Formal innovation
To avoid the emergence of certain letter or sound may achieve the effect of euphemizing.The formal innovation can hide audio-visually those words we don’t want to say or we shouldn’t say so as to achieve better outcome in communication.2.1.1Abbreviation
Abbreviation is the shortening of a word and may be seen in the use of the British expression LADIES for ladies’ room.There also is GENTS for gentlemen’s room.2.1.2 Apocopation
Apocopation is another form of abbreviation apparent in the use of vamp for vampire here meaning a seductive woman.And lav is for lavatory;homo is for homosexual;coca is for cocaine;bra is for brassiere.2.1.3 Initialing
Initialing is the use of acronyms instead of their component parts as in “JC for “Jesus Christ”, BM for bowel movement”[4], “W.C for water closet, B.O for body odor, V.D for venereal disease, AIDS for acquired immune deficiency syndrome, SARS for severe acute respiratory syndrome”[5].2.1.4 Backforming
Backforming is the substitution for one part of speech(used in shortened form)for another, as in “burgle(rob)which is derived from 'burglar'”[6].2.1.5 Reduplication
Reduplication is the repetition of a syllable or letter of a word.particularly common in children’s bathroom vocabulary, it substitutes “pee-pee for'piss', poo-poo for 'bowel movement'”[7].2.1.6 Blend word
A blend word is a form of phonetic distortion in which two or more words are squeezed together both orthographically and phonetically.An example of this is “gezunda for a chamber pot, a term derived from the fact that this object 'goes under the bed'”[8].2.1.7 Diminutive
A diminutive is the formation of a new term by nicking or shortening a name and adding a suffix indicating affection or smallness.“Heinie, for example, is the diminutive of 'hind end' and refers to the buttocks”[9].2.2 Semantic innovation
2.2.1 Borrowing
Most obviously, euphemisms may be formed by borrowing words from other languages—terms that are less freighted with negative associations.Thus, we use Greek and Latin expressions for many bodily parts and functions.We have coined halitosis(bad breath)from the Latin(halitus)for “breath” and we have substituted micturition for the more vulgar Indo-European “piss”.In addition, English euphemisms also borrowed a lot of scientific or academic terms, which are believed to be more euphemistic and objective than the usual terms, such as magnetic for “sexy” and perspire for “sweat” and so on.2.2.2 Widening
Euphemisms may be made by a semantic process called widening.When a specific term becomes too painful or vivid, we move up in the ladder of abstraction.In this way, cancer becomes growth and a girdle becomes a foundation.Sometimes, in addition to widening we divide the negative connotations of a single direct term between two or more words.Instead of saying “syphilis” openly, we speak of a social disease.2.2.3 Semantic shift
Allied to the phenomenon of widening is that of semantic shift.This is the substitution of the whole, or a similar generality, for the specific part we do not choose to discuss.We may create such metonymies(substitutions of the whole for the part)as rear end for “buttocks”.Sometimes, as in the expressions “to sleep with/go to bed with someone”[10], we use words naming the larger event in place of more precise references to the sexual relations that are part of the process.2.3 Rhetorical devices
2.3.1 Metaphor
Euphemisms may be made by a process called metaphorical transfer, the comparison of things of one kind to things of another.The euphemisms chosen are often romanticizing, poeticizing and softening of the original words like “go to sleep;go to his long home;be home and free;rest in peace;be at rest;go to Heaven/paradise;join one's ancestors;be gathered to one's fathers;join the immorals for die”[11], shock for random bombing, constructive destruction for severe damage, have a road to travel for have a long time to reach an agreement and etc..2.3.2 Aposiopesis
In English, there is a kind of rhetoric called aposiopesis that can also act as the way of euphemizing.When we think we should not say something under certain conditions, we suddenly stop as when we say someone is out(of work);she is expecting(a baby);“to take precautions(against pregnancy);to depart(from this world)”[12]
2.3.3Analogy
Analogy can often be seen in the vocabularies of work.A tendency to elevate menial or unskilled jobs—sometimes substituting a grand title for a large salary—can make offal smell like a rose by promoting garbage men to sanitation engineers or even to waste--reduction managers.By implication, they become highly trained technicians and executives.Health-club staffs become fitness coordinators, and senators now have their shoes shined by the footwear maintenance engineer, formerly the Senate bootblack.Even if you are not a government official, your janitor is now your buiding maintenance engineer.2.3.4 Understatement
Understatement displays people’s desire to make their language less painful and direct.So there is never an ugly woman in this world, she is at least plain.Teachers only tell parents that their child is a bit slow for his age, not retarded.And call senior citizen for old person.“Take other's things without permission” can be instead of “steal”.2.3.5 periphrasis
periphrasis is just beating around the bush.people often say euphemisms are weasel words, because people never call a spade a spade when using euphemisms.Fart is not pleasant to ear, so people call it wind from the behind.Someone wants you to go away, but he only says he will call your carriage for you.Someone living at the government expense may make you envy him, but actually he is in prison.“Many sayings about going to WC make a good use of periphrasis like wash one’s hands, powder one’s nose, spend a penny.So do the 'drop' for 'adjustment downward'[13]”
2.4.Grammatical ways
According to Bolinger, “Euphemism is not restricted to the lexicon.There are grammatical ways of toning something down”.Therefore, euphemizing should not be limited to lexical ways;it can also be achieved by grammatical ways.2.4.1 Tense
In English, tense can lend a little euphemistic color to the expressions for something undesired.Especially when people use want, hope, think and wonder or words like that they may also make use of the tense to sound more euphemistically.For example, I wondered if you would mind helping me? or ”I wondered if you could help me?“[14].Asking help this way, people won’t feel so embarrassed if they were refused.2.4.2 Syntactical negation
This method can lesson the painful impact of the language that is not welcomed.We say she is not pretty(Actually she is very ugly), but that is acceptable, because not pretty does not equal to “ugly”, it could be “plain” too.Not pretty has a wider range of meaning than ugly.Similar usages are as the following: I don’t think, I am afraid, I am not sure, I don't like,etc.2.4.3 First personal pronouns
The use of first personal pronouns like we, ours, us, etc, can also make our speeches sound more euphemistic.You would feel more welcomed if you used we or our quite often.If a doctor said to you how do we feel today, you would feel very warm and comfortable, because it makes you think that this kind doctor takes your illness as mutual concern.Communicative functions of euphemisms
Language is for communication, whereas euphemisms may lead to better communication.Using euphemisms can avoid being presumptuous in language communication.When we have to touch some topics that are unpleasant, we tend to choose more euphemistic expressions to refer to those painful topics so as not to hurt the hearer’s feeling.We can find the theoretical foundation for this motivation in Leech’s politeness principle.Euphemisms just minimize the impoliteness and maximize the politeness in communication.The functions of euphemisms are in agreement with those of politeness principle too, as they both offer more benefit to the hearer and leave more cost to the speaker, with the purpose that both of the two sides will feel respected and have favorable impression of each other.As politeness is usually regarded as the manifestation of human civilization, euphemism is one of the most effective strategies to display politeness while modulating interpersonal relationship in human communication.3.1 Substitution
According to the definitions of euphemism and we know that a great number of English euphemisms serve as the substitutions for verbal taboos.The term taboo(ta meaning “mark”, boo meaning “exceedingly”)of polynesian origin denotes anything linguistic and nonlinguistic, which is prohibited or forbidden.Taboo refers to the situation in which a word or name can be used in a community only under special conditions, whether only by certain persons or only in certain circumstances.Just as violating a cultural taboo can be quite offensive, so is it with a verbal taboo in press conferences.The “word” has been and continues to be in most societies perceived as a powerful instrument that may evoke evil spirits, make bad things happen and instigate to violence and revolution and numerous other activities.While taboo of words occurs when a particular topic is considered valid for discussion, euphemistic expression or terms are required.So diplomatic euphemisms have a very serious reason for being.They can conceal the things people fear most —death, the dead or the supernatural.Euphemisms can also eliminate unhappiness, embarrassment and fear etc.so as to relieve people psychologically.3.2 politeness
politeness is another very important function that euphemisms serve in social life.”Some of the euphemisms are used to avoid crudeness and indecency for the sake of a polite conversation.“[15] Grice formulated Cooperative principle of utterance in which the Maxim of Manner was defined as “Be perspicuous and specific;To avoid obscurity;To avoid ambiguity;To be brief and to be orderly.” The roundabout nature of euphemisms goes against the Maxim of Manner, which can only be fairly explained well by Leech’s politeness principle “Approbation Maxim: minimize dispraise of other, maximize praise of other”.In other words, euphemisms are to minimize impolite expressions and maximize polite expressions.3.3 Disguise
Besides the two functions of euphemisms mentioned above, there is still another one more important function at work in euphemistic communication, namely, the Disguise Function.Here we mean that because of the vagueness of euphemisms, it has become a very important tool for political leaders or the diplomats or statesmen to distort the facts or and present a false picture of peace and prosperity and to beautify whatever the authority have done.For example, in the Iraq War, they use “Operation Iraqi Freedom” for beautifying their military invasion, “possible movement” refers to military attack, “air operation” or “air strikes” for air attack, “enter the war” to show their reluctance to fight the war etc.and we may find many such kind of these euphemisms in press conferences.The most important and ultimate function or purpose of the use of diplomatic euphemisms in press conferences is to disguise or beautify their invasive essence or other evil actions or the separation of words from truth.In American and British societies nowadays, diplomatic euphemisms are always purposely devised to disguise scandals in wars and politics, deliberately invented to beautify lowly occupations and excessively inflated to promote sales in advertisement.4.The Cooperative principle
Before going on, we look at two examples, as follows:
(1)”A: Can you tell me the time?
B: Well, the mail has already come.(2)A: Are you going to John’s birthday party?
B: I’ve heard Mary is going.“[16]
It seems there are some mistake in the conversations.But in fact, it is correct.The Cooperative principle will help us understand more.The Cooperative principle is as follows:” Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.“[17]
According Grice, Cooperative principle is classified into four categories: quantity, quality, relation and manner.The category of quantity relates to the quantity ofinformation to be provided, and under it fall the following maxims：
4.1 The maxim of Quality:
”Try to make your contribution one that is true,.specifically:
(i)do not say what you believe to be false.(ii)do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence“[18]
4.2 The maxim of Quantity:
”(i)Make your contribution as informative as is required for the current purposes of the exchange
(ii)Do not make your contribution more informative than is required“[19]
4.3 The maxim of Relation:
”Make your contribution relevant.“[20]
4.4 The maxim of Manner:
”Be perspicuous and specifically:
(i)avoid obscurity of expression.(ii)avoid ambiguity.(iii)be brief
(iv)be orderly.“[21]
From what mentioned above, we may know that the Cooperative principle enables one participant in a conversation to communicate on the assumption that the other participant is being cooperative.These four maxims form a necessary part of the description of linguistic meaning in that they explain how it is that the speakers often “mean more than they say” in their communications.”We may decide to withhold whatever information we possess:’ No comment!’ We may inadvertently infringe a maxim or we can secretly violate a maxim—e.g.A could maliciously and falsely tell B that Janet had walked in the opposite direction from the post office.Or – more importantly – we can make a blatant show of breaking one of the maxims(Grice terms this flouting a maxim), in order to lead the addressee to look for a covert, implied meaning.“[22].For examples,(3)”At the time of recording, all the members of the cast were members of The BBC players.(Implicature: One or more of them are no longer members of The BBC players.)“[23]
Generally speaking, ”in Grice’s analysis, the speaker’s flouting of a maxim combined with the hearer’s assumption that the speaker has nor really abandoned the co-operative principle leads to an implicature“[24].One thing that deserves our attention is that the four maxims, expressed in the imperative mood have sometimes been misunderstood as instructions for a speaker to behave in conversation.5.possible violating the Cooperative principle in the use of euphemisms
In the light of the foregoing literature review and the theoretical bases, we know that euphemisms or euphemistic expressions are important and people often use them in communication.In reality, it can be found that these diplomats and statesmen etc.also use euphemisms or euphemistic expressions in the question-answer patterns.These statesmen make sharp things or unpleasant things sound pleasant etc.otherwise the use of euphemisms may even cause misunderstandings.So the next we will talk about communication with the theories of Cooperative principle.For example, to be specific, diplomatic euphemisms of press conferences are mainly chosen as the substitution of an agreeable or inoffensive word or expression for one that is harsh, indelicate or unpleasant to the other side.They are chosen from both the lexical approach and the rhetorical approach.In communication like the question-answer patterns in press conferences, generally people or participants are required to observe the Cp in order to make their conversation moves forward smoothly and successfully.But in reality, in order to meet a certain communicative need, especially in press conferences concerning diplomacy, actually people seldom speaks by always faithfully observing these four maxims of the Cp.Therefore Grice himself also suggests 5 ways participants can deal with these maxims.First, speakers can straightforwardly follow the maxims, that is, they can speak the truth while giving just enough relevant information in a clear, unambiguous, succinct and orderly manner.Many people do just that most of time.Second, someone may violate a maxim, as you would do if you told a deliberate lie.A third thing that can happen is that a speaker can ‘opt out’ of a maxim, this seems to be an uncommon occurrence.The fourth possibility is the maxim clash;cases in which you would have to violate one maxim in order to fulfill another.And perhaps this is the most case of violation of the maxims in press conferences.The fifth and most intriguing way to deal with the maxims of conversation is to flout one of them.When a maxim is flouted, a speaker doesn't observe the maxim, but cannot be accused of violating it either, because the transgression is so flagrant that it is totally obvious that the speaker knows he or she is not observing it and realizes everyone else in the conversation knows it too.The existence of the maxims of the Cp makes the conversational implicature possible especially on the conditions like in press conferences etc..Conversational implicature allows a speaker of any side in press conferences to convey meaning beyond what is literally expressed.Speakers in press conferences can often use euphemisms or euphemistic expressions to produce conversational implicature or more meaning that the hearers can also figure out its real intentions rather than the literal meaning by violating some certain maxims.5.1.Violation of Quality Maxim
”Violation of Quality Maxim means by saying things that are not true or the fact and making irresponsible and insincere remarks by the speakers.It can produce some specifical content: humor, or disguise the intention such as Ministry of Defence for Ministry of War, life insurence for insurance when you are dead, freedom fighters for terrorists.“[25] Frankly speaking, euphemisms have a tendency to violate Quality Maxim in order to express unpleasant things or ideas etc.in an indirect, roundabout and pleasant way.Therefore if hearers want to know the real intentions , they should infer the conversational implicature from the illocutionary meaning based on the special context.Moreover hyperbole and understatement also don't obey the Quality Maxim, for all these contribution are true.Let us look at some examples as follows:
(4)Q: Britain and France both put troops on standby alert … for possible movement into Kosovo.While … has the U.S.put any units on stand-by for a possible movement to Kosovo?
A: In view of the fact that … our forces remain at their current state of readiness.There … increase that state of alertness at this point.Obviously… on short stand-by… air operations, would….In the above Q-A patterns of the transcripts, we can see diplomatic euphemisms like “possible movement”, “at their current state of readiness” and “air operation” etc.are used in press conferences that violate the Quality Maxim.From the specific context we know that here “possible movement” mainly means “possible military attack”, “at their current state of readiness” refers to “at their current state of fighting ” and “air operation” refers to “air war” or “air fight” etc..Still we can find more examples violating Quality Maxim of the Cp in press conferences like “Ministry of Defense” for “Ministry of War”, “entering into Kosovo” or “go into Kosovo” for “invade Kosovo” or “invasion” and “information” for “military intelligence” and also “active defense” for “attack” etc..By saying that, the authority can distort the facts to some extent and also reduce its bad impressions on the public.Hence the authority can present a false picture to the public and to beautify or disguise whatever they have done.5.2 Violation of Quantity Maxim
”Violation of Quantity Maxim is by providing non-informative information or by either providing less or more information than actually needed.Strictly speaking, acronym and abbreviation, two main ways of the formation of euphemism, are the two main ways of violating the Quantity Maxim.For example, execute is for execute death penalty, I need to go is for I need to go to the lavatory, commfu for complete monumental military fuck up , S.O.S for son-of-a-bitch.“[26] Some euphemisms or euphemistic expressions are created by contributing less information to violate the Quantity Maxim in order to make unpleasant, rude or offensive words sound more pleasant, polite and elegant.Let us have a look at some expressions used in press conferences violate the Quantity Maxim of the Cp.(5)Q: General Naumann said … military targets?
A:(Cohen): As we indicated the ACTORD was … Serbian forces were really posing a serious threat to several … the cold or from starving.That ACTORD was … innocent people.That ACTORD remains … General Naumann has referred to.Let us have a look at another example:
(6)Q: General, … Could you … in the event of a conflict and … in terms of a liaison with the NGOs and …?
A: Well, their role is…civil-military affairs organizations, … in the CENTCOM theater …
In the above two question-answer patterns in press conferences we may say that these diplomatic euphemisms violate the Quantity Maxim because they failed to give us the right amount of information we needed or we may also say that they provided less information.By using these euphemisms the speakers like the diplomats and statesmen etc.can avoid mentioning these unpleasant terms or notions like central command and activation order etc.in press conferences.Among the euphemisms used in press conferences, we may still find that some of the euphemisms can be regarded as a special case that violate both the Quality Maxim and the Quantity Maxim etc..Hence in a broad sense we may say that euphemisms that violate the Quality Maxim can also be regarded as a special case that violate the Quantity Maxim because the two maxims are closely related.If a euphemism violates Quality Maxim, it also violates Quantity Maxim to a certain extent.For example, the euphemisms like “possible movement” for “possible military attack” or “possible war”;“brought the world together” mainly refers to those countries led by the USA.Hence from this point of view we may that euphemisms like “possible movement”, “brought the world together” etc.not only violate the Quality Maxim but also violate the Quantity Maxim because to a certain extent they distort the facts and provide less information than people actually need.5.3 Euphemisms and the Relation Maxim
As we mentioned before that the Maxim of Relation refers to “Be relevant” and violation of Relation Maxim means that the utterance of a speaker is irrelevant to the conversation or the specific context for some reasons or some purposes.Sometimes we may find English euphemisms are to use irrelevant utterances on the surface to express something that the speakers want to say and cannot say.In fact the implied meaning of the utterances is relevant partially because the formation of English euphemisms abides these formative principles like pleasant-sound principle etc..For example,(7)”I approached her very hesitatly.“Want to come and play?”
piquette looked at me with a sudduen flash of scorn.“I ain't a kid,” she said.Wounded, I stamped angrily away...“[27]
Here, ”I ain't a kid“ seems no relationto this conversation.But there implicature meaning is only kids play--I ain't kid--I won't play with you.So, it is indirect refuse of communicating.In English “to pass away” is used in a euphemistic sense for “to die” now.The denotation of “to pass away” is “to go away for a time”;while “to die” means “to go away forever”.“To die” is euphemized as “to go away” by violating the Relation Maxim on the surface, in fact, both the two phrases have the relevant meaning to “to go away”.Their difference lies only in the time, one is for a period of time, the other is forever.So when the speaker use “to pass away” to replace “to die”, the hearers may infer the conversational implicature of “to die” from the relevant meaning “to go away”.So with time goes on, it is now almost used as a fixed usage for “to die” in almost all the circumstances.5.4 Violation of Manner Maxim
Violation of Manner Maxim means giving obscure and ambiguous information etc..Sometimes under the communicative circumstances, the speaker, in order to avoid mentioning unpleasant and embarrassed things in a direct way, say something obscurely and ambiguously, then the hearers should carefully infer the conversational implicature of the speaker and what is their real intentions and meaning according to the specific context.So we may find many euphemisms tend to violate the Maxim of Manner so as to achieve the mild, agreeable, roundabout and pleasant-sound effects.We can also take the following as examples to illustrate how euphemisms violate the Manner Maxim.”A educator cannot say a student is lazy, idle, stupid, or clever.Instead of them is educationally and socially disadvantaged groups, underachieved, those on the lower end of the ability-scale, high verbal-ability subjects, disadvantaged home enviornments, underprivileged child.“[28] Obviously, these words violates Manner Maxim o f being brief.Another example, ”perhaps you had better get your affairs in order." This is a notion of death from the doctor.it's wordy but not unnecessary.one-way-ticket is for die.It reflect one's experience and cognition.6.Conclusion
As we stated earlier, euphemism is one of the important and universal linguistic phenomena.Due to the special characteristics like substitution, indirectness etc.it is becoming one of the main communicative approaches This thesis has attempted to study the euphemistic expressions used in the question-answer patterns from the perspective of pragmatics.The article is an overview of the functions and communicative functions of euphemism, and from the pragmatic analysis of the materials, it can be seen clearly that the use of euphemisms basically violate the Quality Maxim, the Quantity Maxim, and the Manner Maxim of the Cooperative principle and the frequency of violating the Quality Maxim is the highest among the three ones.That is to say, the euphemisms used in the question-answer patterns generally do not violate the Relation Maxim of the Cooperative principle.There is an old saying in English: Necessity is the mother of invention.The creation of euphemisms also cannot depart from people’s needs of them.people need euphemisms for social communication, to euphemize the taboo, to show their politeness and to disguise.As a sociolinguistic phenomenon, the formation of euphemisms is the result of the combination of various social psychological factors and pragmatic factors.Studies on euphemisms from a pragmatic perspective reveal how euphemisms flout the Cooperative principle so as to obey the politeness principle in communication and how factors from their sociocultural and communicational context influence their application in communication.Any change of one or more factors of a communication event, will have an effect on our decision of whether to use euphemisms.The expressive euphemisms play a non-fungible role in communication.It is euphemism that makes language more powerful, magical and pleasant.people’s speech does reflect their background, their activities, and the values they hold, therefore, we can learn much about the English people by looking at their use of euphemisms.The studies on English euphemisms can not only help to develop intercultural communicative competence, but also enlighten English language learning and teaching.Therefore, multidisciplinary, multi-angle, and multi-level studies on euphemisms are necessary for English learners to understand the English history and society and communicate with native English speakers better.There are still a lot in this field waiting to be explored, and euphemisms deserve more attention and comprehensive studies.Bibliography
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第五篇：从李原事件看大学生如何培养自己道德品质
从李原事件看大学生如何培养自己道德品质
1997年4月中国科学院高能所助理研究员，清华大学工物系肄业博士生李原手持利刃，凶残地杀害了该所著名学者、研究员、博士生导师王泰杰。同年8月，李原被判处死刑。李原行凶的缘由来自他与被害人的“矛盾”：1995年，王泰杰任李原所在的计算中心的主任，一天，中心的一个课题组长反映，中心的计算机需要联网，线路要穿过李原的办公室，李原与这位课题组长素有矛盾，多次蛮横地扯断线路，并粗暴地谩骂来接线的同事，为此王泰然批评了李原。此后不久，由于所内因特网用户增加，线路不够，中心决定取消各办公室的直播电话，将这些电话线路改用计算机网络。李原的电话被停用，他大为不满，竟将因特网的一个服务器擅自拆除，严重影响了工作。为此王泰然再次地批评了他，李原则认为王泰然有意与自己过不去。1996年李原从瑞士工作一年回国，按所里规定，出国人员应向所里交纳少量的管理费，但李原拒绝这项执行了十年的“土政策”，拒不交纳这笔费用，说是要与王泰然作对。此外，由于人际关系紧张，计算中心的许多课题组都不愿意接纳李原，李原却认为这是王泰然的错误，后来所里为李原联系一个新单位，希望他调离。于是李原开始铤而走险，行凶杀人。
李原是一个什么样的人？所有接触过李原的人，都说他性格内项、孤僻，不爱说话，行为有些古怪，对大多数人来说，他的内心是一个无法探求的封闭的世界，人们可以与之交谈，但却不能理解他、与他沟通。他对人、对事过于敏感，常怀疑有人故意与自己过不去，不断怀疑自己受到了别人的压制和迫害。他心胸狭窄，不善交往，与人发生矛盾时，一味强调自己有理，片面夸大别人的缺点和错误。1990年他考入清华大学攻读博士学位，1991年在学校中期考核中，他的义务学习、科研工作被评为“中”，德育评为“差”。尽管老师对他进行帮助和鼓励，但李原还是于1992年3月向学校递交了退学申请，这表明了他在困难面前的自卑和退却。
资料来源：《作家文摘报》1997年10月24日
讨论与思考：李原事件表明大学生培养良好思想品德和成熟心理素质的必要性，以及培养处理人与人之间关系的能力和道德人格修养的意义。同学们联系这一事件和自己的学习、生活实际，认真思考大学生如何培养自己的道德品质。
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