中英对照

第一篇：中英对照

行政主体在对行政相对人作出不利行政决定时，是否必须说明理由，二战之后伴随民主法治的发展，经历从无到有的过程。法国、德国、美国、日本及我国台湾地区和澳门地区的行政程序法都有相关规定，说明理由已成为行政程序中一项重要的制度。行政主体在作出影响对人权利义务的行政行为时，向相对人说明作出该行为的事实根据、法律根据及进行自由裁量时所考虑的公共利益、社会习惯、政策考量等因素。这一方面有利于规范行政主体依法行使行政权，保障行政合法性和合理性，降低行政恣意和专断的风险；另一方面，将作出行政决定所依据的事实、法律根据及裁量因素告知行政相对人，可以增强相对人对行政决定的理解和认同。此外，如果相对人对行政决定不服，可根据行政决定的依据和理由寻求法律救济，保障其合法权益。本文以行政程序中的说明理由制度为视角，以我国工商系统推行的说理式行政处罚决定的相关案例，总结我国工商系统说明式行政处罚决定书的特点和问题，并在此基础之上提出完善建议，以期将说理式行政决定书推广适用到行政处罚、行政强制等执法领域，增强行政决定的合理性和正当性，更有效地规范行政权力，保障公民合法权益。

Whether the administrative subject has to give the reasons why making negative administrative decision on administrative counterpart, which appears accompany with the development of democracy and the rule of law.The administrative procedure law in France, Germany, the United States, Japan, Taiwan and Macao of china has relative regulations, and giving the reasons has become an important system in administrative procedure system.When the administrative subject takes administrative actions that will impact the rights and obligations of the administrative counterpart, it should explain to the administrative counterpart the fact and foundation and the law, on which it take the action, also it should explain the public interests, social habits, policy considerations and other factors that it has to take into account when make discretions.on one hand, this is conductive to standardize the administrative subject to execute administrative power according to the law, and guarantee the administrative legality and rationality, reduce administrative arbitrariness and abuse of administrative power;on the other hand, to inform the administrative decision basis of facts, law and discretion factors to the administrative counterpart could enhance the understanding and recognition of the decisions for the administrative counterpart.Besides, if the administrative counterpart doesn’t accept the decisions, could according to the foundations and reasons of the administrative decisions seek for legal redress to protect his/her legal interests.This report base on the reasons explanation system to summarize the characteristics and existing problems of the persuasive administrative penalties notifications in our country’s industrial and commercial systems, and make suggestions on how to improve it, in order to make the administrative decision be applicable to administrative penalty, administrative compulsory enforcement and other executive fields, to enhance the rationality and legitimacy of the administrative decision, effectively regulate the use of the administrative power, protect the legal rights and interests of the citizens.本文分为五部分：

The report has five parts:

引言部分简单介绍我国学界关于行政程序中说明理由制度的研究概况，说明当前关于说明理由制度研究重心和热点问题。

The brief introduce the general situation of the study of the reasons explanation system in administrative procedure of our law circles, and illustrates the focus and hot issues in current study of the reasons explanation system.第一部分为全文概述，简要介绍选题依据和来源，从宪政角度分析行政决定的说理性理论基

础，并从行政机关、行政相对人和受理争议机关复审三方面分析行政决定说理性的价值所在。第二部分着重研究我国工商系统推行的说理式行政处罚决定书案例，总结工商系统说理式行政处罚决定书的特点及存在的问题。

The first part is the general overview of the report, give a brief introduction to the basis and resource of the selection of the topic, analyze the rationality theory foundation of the administrative decision from the constitutional perspective, and analyze the value of the administrative decision rationality from the administrative organ, the administrative counterpart and the request of the controversy dispute acceptance organ.Part two focuses on the study of the cases on the persuasive administrative penalty notification pushed by our country’s industrial and commercial system, and summarize the characteristics and existing problems of the persuasive administrative penalties notifications in our country’s industrial and commercial systems.第三部分对我国目前关于行政决定说理性的立法规范进行分析，指出当前我国相关立法存在的缺陷和问题。

The third part analyzes the current legal regulations in our country on the rationality of the administrative decisions, and point out the existing defects and problems in our country’s relative laws.

第二篇：清明上河图中英对照

Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival 清明上河图

“Riverside Scene at Qingming 清明上河图是北宋画家张择端(960-1127)创作的Festival” is a panoramic（全景的）全景图.是张择端唯一现在的杰作,现作为国宝被北painting by Zhang Zeduan(张择端), 京故宫博物院收藏。an artist in the Northern Song

这幅手卷画528.7厘米长、24.8厘米宽。它展Dynasty(北宋)(960-1127).It is the

描绘了在清明时节北宋京only existing masterpiece 杰作from 现了当时城乡的经济活动，Zhang, and has been collected by 城汴京（当今河南开封市）各个阶层的生活场景。这the Palace Museum in Beijing as a 是对当时京城以及当地居民生活情况进行研究的重national treasure(国家宝藏).要参考资料。

The hand scroll painting手卷画is capture：vt.俘获；夺得；n.捕获；战利品，俘虏 528.7 cm long and 24.8 cm wide.It 词义辨析：arrest,seize,catch,capture,trap这组provides a window展现to the period's

词都有“抓住，捕捉”的意思，其区别是：arresteconomic activities in urban and rural areas, and captures描绘the daily life 指根据法律或命令进行逮捕并予以监禁或拘留。of people of all ranks in the capital seize侧重指以突然、有力地动作迅速抓住或捉住。city of Bianjing(today's Kaifeng, catch普通用词，指捉住跑动或隐藏中的人或动物，Henan Province)during Qingming 一般指活捉。capture指通过武力或计谋等，战胜抵Festival in the Northern Song 抗而捉住敌人或动物。trap多指诱捕。本文中captureDynasty.It is an important historical 是“捕捉、捕获”的意思，捕捉到某一个画面。如果reference material for the study of the 对应到某幅画，可以翻译为“描绘”。providesawindowcity then as well as the life its

译为“为„„提供了窗口”，根据文中大意，可以灵residents rich and poor.The painting is composed of活译为“展现”。

这幅画有三部分组成：农村的春景、汴河上繁华由……组成 three parts: spring in the

清明上河图也因为画中各rural area, busy Bianhe River ports, 场景以及繁荣的城市街道。and prosperous繁荣的city streets.种自然元素、建筑、船艇以及小桥、集市、店铺还有The painting is also known for its 人物、风景等在空间上精确合理的布局而闻名于世。geometrically accurate images of 清明上河图中有550余人，但是他们各着不同服饰，variety natural elements and

表情各异，身体姿势也是变化万千。它是中国绘画中architectures, boats and bridges, market place and stores, people and 最享有盛名的著作，被称作 “中国的蒙娜丽莎”。scenery.Over 550 people in different Composevt组成，构成；创作(文学、音乐、绘画等作clothes服饰, expressions表情 and 品)；整理，整顿词义辨析:invent,compose,make, postures姿势 are shown in the create,design,produce这组词都有“创造”的意思，painting.It is often considered to be 其区别是：invent主要用于科技领域，指通过思考、the most renowned work among all 研究或实验制造出新的前所未有、极为有用的东西。the Chinese paintings, and it has compose多指音乐或诗歌、画的创作。make最普通用been called “China's Mona Lisa.”

词，指任何东西的创作或制造。create侧重创造出来的东西以前并不存在，或者指独具特色的创作。design主要指在艺术或技术领域的创作设计，强调构思多于实际制造。produce指产品的生产，或作品创作的完成。geometrically 意思是“几何学上的”geometrically accurate images表面译为“几何上精确的图片”，根据文中的意境，应该是“各个元素

在空间上合理而准确的布局”。

第三篇：ArcGIS中英对照

ArcGIS 9 ArcToolbox 中英文对照表

3D Analyst Tools

Conversion

TIN 三角计算 TIN 域值 TIN 多边形标志 TIN 节点 TIN 边 TIN 到栅格 栅格转 TIN Functional Surface 三维分析工具

转换

表面功能

插值形状 表面体积 表面点 表面长度 视线

Raster Interpolation

栅格修补

克里金 地形到栅格 曲线拟合

用文件地形到栅格 自然邻域 趋势

距离权重倒数 Raster Math

栅格计算

乘

减

加

取整

浮点

除

Raster Reclass 栅格重分类

切片

查找

用 ASCII 文件重分

类

用表重分类

重分类 Raster Surface 坡向 坡度 填/挖 山影 曲率

栅格表面

等高线 等高线列表 观察点 视域 TIN Creation

创建 TIN 编辑 TIN TIN Surface

TIN 创建

Analysis Tool:

TIN 表面

TIN 坡度

TIN 方位

TIN 等高线

多边形插值成多个面

分析工具

提取

剪切

选择

拆分 Extract

Clip

Select Split Table Select Overlay

Erase Identity

Intersect

表选择 叠加分析

擦除

查看

相交

对称差 联合更新

邻域分析

缓冲区 多环缓冲区 临近

点距离 统计表

频度

总结统计

绘图工具

掩模工具

Cul-De-Sac 掩模 要素轮廓线掩模 相交图层掩模

转换工具

从删格到...删格到 ASCII Symmetrical Difference

Union Update Proximity

Buffer Multiple Ring Buffer Near

Point Distance Statistics

Frequency

Summary Statistics

Cartography Tool:

Masking Tools

Cul-De-Sac Masks Feature Outline Masks Intersecting Layers Masks

Conversion Tool:

From Raster

Raster to ASCII

Raster to Float Raster to Point

删格到浮点 删格到点 删格到面 删格到线 到 CAD

添加 CAD 字段

创建 CAD 扩展实体数据 导出到 CAD 设置 CAD 别名

到 Coverage

要素类到 Coverage 到 dBASE

表到 dBASE

要素类到要素类 要素类到 Geodatabase 导入 CAD 注记

导入 Coverage 注记 从 CAD 导入

栅格到 Geodatabase 表到 Geodatabase 表到表

到栅格

ASCII 到栅格 DEM 到栅格 要素到栅格 浮点到栅格 栅格到其他格式 到 Shapefile Raster to Polygon

Raster to Polyline

To CAD

Add CAD Fields Create CAD XData Export to CAD

Set CAD Alias

To Coverage

Feature Class To Coverage To dBASE

Table to dBASE [multiple] To GeodatabaSE Feature Class To Feature Class Feature Class to Geodatabase [multiple] Import CAD Annotation Import Coverage Annotation Import from CAD Raster To Geodatabase[multiple]

Table to Geodatabase[multiple] Table To Table To Raster

ASCII to Raster DEM to Raster

Feature to Raster

Float to Raster Raster To Other Format

To Shapefile

Coverage Tool: Analysis

Feature Class To Shapefile 要素类到 Shapefile Coverage 工具

分析

提取

剪切

选择

拆分 Extract Clip

Select Split Overlay Erase Identity

Intersect

叠加

擦除

判别

相交

联合更新

邻近 Union Update Proximity

Buffer Near

Point Distance Point Node Thiessen

Conversion

From Coverage

缓冲

近邻

点距离 点到结点 泰森近似多边形

转换

从 Coverage

到 DLG

到 Interchange 文件 到 S57 到 SETS 到 VPF 取消生成 到 Coverage

高级 Tiger 转换

基本 Tiger 转换 Export To DLG

Export To Interchange File Export To S57

Export To SETS Export To VPF

Ungenerate To Coverage Advanced Tiger Conversion Basic Tiger Conversion

Generate

Import From DLG Import From Interchange File

生成从 DLG 导入

从 Interchange 文件导入 从 S57 导入 从 SETS 导入 从 VPF 导入

数据管理 集合

追加

要素合成线 Coverage 到区域

线 Coverage 到路径 Import From S57 Import From SETS Imort From VPF

Data Management

Aggregate

Append Composite Features

Line Coverage To Region

Line Coverage To Route

Polygon Coverage To Region Region To Polygon Coverage

多边形 Coverage 到区域 区域到多边形 Coverage 聚集多边形

分解双线到中心线

融合消除

查找冲突 简化建筑物 简化线或多边形

删除索引

索引项

添加项 删除项 Generalization Aggregate Polygons

一般

Collapse Dual Lines To Centerline Dissolve

Eliminate

Find Conflicts Simplify Building

Simplify Line Or Polygon Indexes Drop Index Index Item

索引

项 Items Add Item

Drop Item

Joins Join Info Tables Projections Define Projection

Project Transform

连接

投影

连接 Info 表 定义投影 投影

变换

添加 XY 坐标 重新计数节点 更新 ID

容差

构建

Clean 创建标注 VPF 图块拓扑 Tables Add XY Coordinates

表

Renumber Nodes Update IDs Tolerances Tolerance

容差 拓扑 Topology

Build Clean Create Labels

VPF Tile Topology

Workspace Management

工作空间管理

创建 Coverage

紧凑 Create Coverage

Data Management Tools 数据管理工具

Database

数据库

Compact Compress

Disconnected Editing

Check In

Check In From Delta Check Out

压缩

分离编辑

检入

从增量中检入 检出

值域

导出增量

添加编码值到值域 赋值值域到字段 创建值域

从值域中删除编码值 删除值域 值域到表 从字段删除值域 为范围值域设置值 表到值域

要素类

追加注记要素类

计算缺省容限值 Export To Delta Domains

Add Coded Value To Domain Assign Domain To Field

Create Domain

Delete Coded Value From Domain Delete Domain

Domain To Table Remove Domain From Field Set Value For Range Domain Table To Domain Feature class

Append Annotation Feature Classes Calculate Default Cluster Tolerance Calculate Default Spatial Grid Index 计算缺省空间格网索引

Integrate

整合

Update Annotation Feature Class

创建要素类

Features

要素

Add XY Coordinates

更新标记要素类 创建要素类

添加 XY 坐标

检查几何形状 复制要素

删除要素 要素封装到多边形 Check Geometry Copy Features

Delete Features Feature Envelope to Polygon

Feature To Line Feature To Point Feature To Polygon

Feature Vertices To Points Multipart To Singlepart

Polygon To Line Repair Geometry Split Line At Vertices

Fields

Add Field

Assign Default To Field

Calculate Field Delete Field General

Copy

Delete Rename Select Data 追加

Generalization Dissolve

Eliminate

Simplify Line

Smooth Line Indexes

Add Attribute Index Add Spatial Index

Remove Attribute Index Remove Spatial Index Joins

Add Join

Remove Join Layers and Table Views

Make Query Table Make Raster Catalog Layer Make Raster Layer

要素到线 要素到点 要素到多边形 要素定点到点 多部分到单部分 多边形到线 修改集合形状

在定点拆分线

字段

添加字段 设置缺省到字段 计算字段 删除字段 一般

复制

删除

重命名 选择数据

追加

一般

融合消除

简化线平滑线 索引

添加属性索引 添加空间索引 删除属性索引 删除空间索引 连接

添加连接 删除连接

图层和表的查看

制作查询表 制作栅格目录图层 制作栅格图层

Make XY Event Layer Save To Layer File

Select Layer By Attribute Select Layer By Location

制作 XY 事件图层 保存成图层文件 通过属性选择 通过位置选择 制作表视图 制作要素图层 制作表视图 制作要素图层

Projections and Transformations 投影和转换

Feature Batch Project

Project 创建空间参考 Raster Flip

Mirror Project Raster Rescale Rotate Shift War

Define Projection

Raster

Batch Build Pyramids Batch Calculate Statistics Build Pyramids

Calculate Statistics Clip

Composite Bands Copy Raster Copy Raster Catalog Items Create Raster Catalog Delete Raster Catalog Items Mosaic To New Raster Resample

创建栅格数据集

镶嵌

Relationship Classes

Create Relationship Class Table To Relationship Class Subtypes

Add Subtype Remove Subtype

Set Default Subtype Set Subtype Field

Table

要素

批量投影

投影

创建空间参考

栅格

翻转

镜像

投影栅格

重建比例

旋转

偏移

翘曲

定义投影 栅格

批量建立金字塔

批量计算统计表 建立金字塔 计算统计表 剪切

组合波段 复制栅格 复制栅格目录项 创建栅格目录 删除栅格目录项

镶嵌到新的栅格

重采样

创建栅格数据集

镶嵌

关系类

创建关系类

表到关系类 子类型

添加子类型

删除子类型

设置缺省子类型

设置子类型字段

表

Analyze Change Privileges

Copy Rows

分析

改变权限 复制行 删除行 获得数目 关联表 创建表

拓扑

添加要素类型到拓扑 添加规则到拓扑 创建拓扑

从拓扑删除要素类 从拓扑中删除规则 设置簇容限值

版本

教验拓扑

改变版本 创建版本 删除版本 提交版本 协调版本 注册版本

工作空间

取消注册

创建 ArcInfo 工作空间 创建要素数据集 创建文件夹

创建个人 Geodatabase

地理编码工具

自动生成地理编码索引 创建地址定位器

取消自动生成地理编码索引 删除地址定位器 地理编码地址 重建地理编码索引 标准化地址 Delete Rows Get Count

Pivot Table 创建表

Topology

Add Feature Class To Topology Add Rule To Topology Create Topology Remove Feature Class From Topology Remove Rule From Topology Set Cluster Tolerance Validate Topology

Versions

Alter Version

Create Version Delete Version Post Version Reconcile Version

Register As Versioned Unregister As Versioned

Workspace

Create ArcInfo Workspace Create Feature Dataset

Create Folder

Create Personal GDB Geocoding Tools

Automate Geocoding Indexes Create Address Locator

Deautomate Geocoding Indexes Delete Address Locator

Geocode Addresses

Rebuild Geocoding Indexes Standardize Addresses

Geostatistical Analyst Tools

Geostatistical Layer To Grid

地理统计分析工具

导出地理统计图层到 Grid

线性参考工具

校准路径 创建路径 融合路径事件

Linear Referencing Tools

Calibrate Routes Create Routes

Dissolve Route Events

Locate Features Along Routes

沿路径定位要素 制作路径事件图层 Make Route Event Layer

Overlay Route Events Transform Route Events

Spatial Analyst Tools

Conditional

拾取 条件 设空 Density

核密度 点密度 线密度

Distance

代价分配 代价回联 代价距离 代价路径 欧几里德分配 欧几里德方向 欧几里德距离 走廊 路径距离 路径距离分配 路径距离回联 Extraction

提取值到点 根据属性提取 用圆提取 用多边形提取 用掩模提取 用点提取 用矩形提取 采样 Generalization 区块组合 多数过滤 收缩 消蚀 细化 聚合 膨胀 边界清理

叠加路径事件 转换路径事件

空间分析工具

条件

密度

距离

提取

一般

Groundwater

粒子跟踪 达西流 达西速率 透水层 Hydrology

下陷点 填充 捕捉汇流点 河流分级 河流到要素 河流连接 流向 流域 流程 盆地 累积流量

Interpolation

克里金 地形到栅格 曲线拟合

用文件地形到栅格自然邻域 趋势

距离权重倒数 Local

像素统计 分级 合成 大于频率 小于频率 普及度 最低位置 最高位置 等于频率 Map Algebra

单输出地图代数 多输出地图代数 Math

Bitwise 位与

位右移 位否

位异或

地下水

水文

添补

本地

地图代数

数学计算

为运算

左位移

按位或 Logical 不等于

为空

大于

大于等于 小于

小于等于

测试

等于

组合与

组合异或

组合或 逻辑与 逻辑否

逻辑异或

逻辑或 Trigonometric

ATan2 余弦

双曲余弦 双曲正切 双曲正弦 反余弦 反双曲余弦 反双曲正切 反双曲正弦 反正切 反正弦 正切

正弦的对数 10 的指数 2 的对数 2 的指数 上取整 下取整 乘

减

加

取整 否

平方

逻辑运算

三角函数

平方根 指数 整除 浮点

绝对值

自然对数

自然指数

除

Multivariate

多元多变量

Isocluster

主成分

创建特征

最大似然性分类

波段组统计

类概率

系统树图功能

编辑署名函数

Neighborhood

邻域

块统计

点统计

焦点流

焦点统计

线统计

过滤

Overlay

叠加

加权叠加

Raster Creation 栅格创建

创建常量栅格

创建正态栅格

创建随机栅格

Reclass

重分类

切片

查找

用 ASCII 文件重分

类

用表重分类

重分类 Surface

坡向 坡度 填/挖 山影 曲率 等高线 等高线列表

表面

观察点 视域 Zonal

区域几何 区域几何到表 区域填充 区域统计

区域统计到表

面积制表

Spatial Statistics Tools

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Collect Events with Rendering Count Rendering Export Feature Attribute to Ascii Z Score Renderine

第四篇：自我介绍中英对照

大家好，我叫xx，中山大学工商管理本科，09年7月份毕业。我想从三个方面介绍自己：

1）学生工作方面。在学院担任ＸＸ，班级担任ＸＸＸ，学校担任XXXX，负责了学校学院和班级的多项活动。凭借着优异的工作，我获得了XXXX学生干部奖学金。

2）学术竞赛方面。参加挑战杯获得XXX，花旗论坛获得ＸＸＸ等。

3）社会实践方面。我曾经在XXX公司实习，而实习的经历让我明白了公司对人才的要求，也让我自己不断提高自我要求。

接下来就是靠对公司的认识，结合自己的某些事例，拉近自己和公司的距离。最后一句一般都是，相信通过自己在贵公司的学习，一定可以成为XXXX！

My name is xx, a postgraduate student from Tianjin University, and will get my master degree in March 2007.I'd like to summarize myself from 3 aspects:

First, I'm an excellent learner.In my sophomore year, I passed the entrance examination to the Excellent Student Program in Tianjin University and

was recommended as the postgraduate student with special courses, and then I joined the IBM Center in Tianjin University.After finishing my undergradua te courses, my GPA was 3.8 out of 4.5.Second, I'm an excellent problem-solver.During the

last 4 years, I have finished 5 projects, including the Hydraulic Engineering Project Management

System, and so on.And I took part in the Mathematical Contest in Modeling in 2003 and won the second prize in Tianjin region.Last, I'm an excellent team player.I've been serving as the monitor for 6 years and team leader for 2 years.And besides taking more responsibiliti

es, I also placed great emphasis on teamwork, in order to meet the team's go l.

第五篇：中英对照：光纤通信

光纤通信

光纤常被电话公司用于传递电话、互联网，或是有线电视的信号，有时候利用一条光纤就可以同时传递上述的所有信号。与传统的铜线相比，光纤的信号衰减（attenuation）与遭受干扰[来源请求]（interference）的情形都改善很多，特别是长距离以及大量传输的使用场合中，光纤的优势更为明显。然而，在城市之间利用光纤的通信基础建设（infrastructure）通常施工难度以及材料成本难以控制，完工后的系统维运复杂度与成本也居高不下。因此，早期光纤通信系统多半应用在长途的通信需求中，这样才能让光纤的优势彻底发挥，并且抑制住不断增加的成本。

从2000年光通信（optical communication）市场崩溃后，光纤通信的成本也不断下探，目前已经和铜缆为骨干的通信系统不相上下。

对于光纤通信产业而言，1990年光放大器（optical amplifier）正式进入商业市场的应用后，很多超长距离的光纤通信才得以真正实现，例如越洋的海底电缆。到了2002年时，越洋海底电缆的总长已经超过25万公里，每秒能携带的数据量超过2.56Tb，而且根据电信业者的统计，这些数据从2002年后仍然不断的大幅成长中。

光纤通信的历史

自古以来，人类对于长距离通信的需求就不曾稍减。随着时间的前进，从烽火到电报，再到1940年第一条同轴电缆（coaxial cable）正式服役，这些通信系统的复杂度与精细度也不断的进步。但是这些通信方式各有其极限，使用电气信号传递信息虽然快速，但是传输距离会因为电气信号容易衰减而需要大量的中继器（repeater）；微波（microwave）通信虽然可以使用空气做介质，可是也会受到载波频率（carrier frequency）的限制。到了二十世纪中叶，人们才了解使用光来传递信息，能带来很多过去所没有的显著好处。

然而，当时并没有同调性高的发光源（coherent light source），也没有适合作为传递光信号的介质，也所以光通信一直只是概念。直到1960年代，激光（laser）的发明才解决了第一项难题。1970年代康宁公司（Corning Glass Works）发展出高品质低衰减的光纤则是解决了第二项问题，此时信号在光纤中传递的衰减量第一次低于光纤通信之父高锟所提出的每公里衰减20分贝

（20dB/km）关卡，证明了光纤作为通信介质的可能性。与此同时使用砷化镓（GaAs）作为材料的半导体激光（semiconductor laser）也被发明出来，并且凭借着体积小的优势而大量运用于光纤通信系统中。1976年，第一条速率为44.7Mbit/s的光纤通信系统在美国亚特兰大的地下管道中诞生。

经过了五年的研发期，第一个商用的光纤通信系统在1980年问市。这个人类史上第一个光纤通信系统使用波长800纳米（nanometer）的砷化镓激光作为光源，传输的速率（data rate）达到45Mb/s（bits per second），每10公里需要一个中继器增强信号。

第二代的商用光纤通信系统也在1980年代初期就发展出来，使用波长1300纳米的磷砷化镓铟（InGaAsp）激光。早期的光纤通信系统虽然受到色散（dispersion）的问题而影响了信号品质，但是1981年单模光纤（single-mode fiber）的发明克服了这个问题。到了1987年时，一个商用光纤通信系统的传输速率已经高达1.7Gb/s，比第一个光纤通信系统的速率快了将近四十倍之谱。同时传输的功率与信号衰减的问题也有显著改善，间隔50公里才需要一个中继器增强信号。1980年代末，EDFA的诞生，堪称光通信历史上的一个里程碑似的事件，它使光纤通信可直接进行光中继，使长距离高速传输成为可能，并促使了DWDM的诞生。

第三代的光纤通信系统改用波长1550纳米的激光做光源，而且信号的衰减已经低至每公里0.2分贝（0.2dB/km）。之前使用磷砷化镓铟激光的光纤通信系统常常遭遇到脉波延散（pulse spreading）问题，而科学家则设计出色散迁移光纤（dispersion-shifted fiber）来解决这些问题，这种光纤在传递1550纳米的光波时，色散几乎为零，因其可将激光光的光谱限制在单一纵模（longitudinal mode）。这些技术上的突破使得第三代光纤通信系统的传输速率达到2.5Gb/s，而且中继器的间隔可达到100公里远。

第四代光纤通信系统引进了光放大器（optical amplifier），进一步减少中继器的需求。另外，波分复用（wavelength-division multiplexing, WDM）技术则大幅增加传输速率。这两项技术的发展让光纤通信系统的容量以每六个月增加一倍的方式大幅跃进，到了2001年时已经到达10Tb/s的惊人速率，足足是80年代光纤通信系统的200倍之多。近年来，传输速率已经进一步增加到14Tb/s，每隔160公里才需要一个中继器。

第五代光纤通信系统发展的重心在于扩展波分复用器的波长操作范围。传统的波长范围，也就是一般俗称的“C band”约是1530纳米至1570纳米之间，新一带的无水光纤（dry fiber）低损耗的波段则延伸到1300纳米至1650纳米间。另外一个发展中的技术是引进光孤子（optical soliton）的概念，利用光纤的非线性效应，让脉波能够抵抗色散而维持原本的波形。

1990年至2000年间，光纤通信产业受到互联网泡沫的影响而大幅成长。此外一些新兴的网络应用，如随选视频（video on demand）使得互联网带宽的成长甚至超过摩尔定律（Moore’s Law）所预期集成电路芯片中晶体管增加的速率。而自互联网泡沫破灭至2006年为止，光纤通信产业通过企业整并壮大规模，以及委外生产的方式降低成本来延续生命。

现在的发展前沿就是全光网络了，使光通信完全的代替电信号通讯系统，当然，这还有很长的路要走。

fiber-optic communications

Optical fiber is used by many telecommunications companies to transmit telephone signals, Internet communication, and cable television signals.Due to much lower attenuation and interference, optical fiber has large advantages over existing copper wire in long-distance and high-demand applications.However, infrastructure development within cities was relatively difficult and time-consuming, and fiber-optic systems were complex and expensive to install and operate.Due to these difficulties, fiber-optic communication systems have primarily been installed in long-distance applications, where they can be used to their full transmission capacity, offsetting the increased cost.Since 2000, the prices for fiber-optic communications have dropped considerably.The price for rolling out fiber to the home has currently become more cost-effective than that of rolling out a copper based network.Prices have dropped to $850 per subscriber in the US and lower in countries like The Netherlands, where digging costs are low.Since 1990, when optical-amplification systems became commercially available, the telecommunications industry has laid a vast network of intercity and transoceanic fiber communication lines.By 2002, an intercontinental network of 250,000 km of submarine communications cablewith a capacity of 2.56 Tb/s was completed, and although specific network capacities are privileged information, telecommunications investment reports indicate that network capacity has increased dramatically since 2004.History

In 1966 Charles K.Kao and George hockom proposed optical fibers at STC Laboratories(STL)at Harlow, England, when they showed that the losses of 1000 dB/km in existing glass(compared to 5-10 db/km in coaxial cable)was due to contaminants, which could potentially be removed.Optical fiber was successfully developed in 1970 by Corning Glass Works, with attenuation low enough for communication purposes(about 20dB/km), and at the same time GaAs semiconductor lasers were developed that were compact and therefore suitable for transmitting light through fiber optic cables for long distances.After a period of research starting from 1975, the first commercial fiber-optic communications system was developed, which operated at a wavelength around 0.8 µm and used GaAs semiconductor lasers.This first-generation system operated at a bit rate of 45 Mbps with repeater spacing of up to 10 km.Soon on 22 April, 1977, General Telephone and Electronics sent the first live telephone traffic through fiber optics at a 6 Mbit/s throughput in Long Beach, California.The second generation of fiber-optic communication was developed for commercial use in the early 1980s, operated at 1.3 µm, and used InGaAsP semiconductor lasers.Although these systems were initially limited by dispersion, in 1981 the single-mode fiber was revealed to greatly improve system performance.By 1987, these systems were operating at bit rates of up to 1.7 Gb/s with repeater spacing up to 50 km.The first transatlantic telephone cable to use optical fiber was TAT-8, based on Desurvire optimized laser amplification technology.It went into operation in 1988.Third-generation fiber-optic systems operated at 1.55 µm and had losses of about 0.2 dB/km.They achieved this despite earlier difficulties with pulse-spreading at that wavelength using conventional InGaAsP semiconductor lasers.Scientists overcame this difficulty by using dispersion-shifted fibers designed to have minimal dispersion at

1.55 µm or by limiting the laser spectrum to a single longitudinal mode.These developments eventually allowed third-generation systems to operate commercially at 2.5 Gbit/s with repeater spacing in excess of

km.The fourth generation of fiber-optic communication systems used optical amplification to reduce the need for repeaters and wavelength-division multiplexing to increase data capacity.These two improvements caused a revolution that resulted in the doubling of system capacity every 6 months starting in 1992 until a bit rate of 10 Tb/s was reached by 2001.Recently, bit-rates of up to 14 Tbit/s have been reached over a single 160 km line using optical amplifiers.The focus of development for the fifth generation of fiber-optic communications is on extending the wavelength range over which a WDM system can operate.The conventional wavelength window, known as the C band, covers the wavelength range 1.53-1.57 µm, and the new dry fiber has a low-loss window promising an extension of that range to 1.30-1.65 µm.Other developments include the concept of “optical solitons, “ pulses that preserve their shape by counteracting the effects of dispersion with the nonlinear effectsof the fiber by using pulses of a specific shape.In the late 1990s through 2000, industry promoters, and research companies such as KMI and RHK predicted vast increases in demand for communications bandwidth due to increased use of the Internet, and commercialization of various bandwidth-intensive consumer services, such as video on demand.Internet protocoldata traffic was increasing exponentially, at a faster rate than integrated circuit complexity had increased under Moore’s Law.From the bust of the dot-com bubble through 2006, however, the main trend in the industry has been consolidation of firms and offshoring of manufacturing to reduce costs.Recently, companies such as Verizon and AT&T have taken advantage of fiber-optic communications to deliver a variety of high-throughput data and broadband services to consumers’ homes.