美国概况(unit 3_4_6_7_8)

第一篇：美国概况(unit 3_4_6_7_8)

UNIT 3

1.What is an American? Comment on the answer to the question by Crevecoeur?

(1)American is either a European or the descendant of a European, hence that strange mixture of blood, which you will find in no other country.He is an American, who leaving behind him all his ancient prejudices and manners, receives new ones from the new mode of life he has embraced, the new government he obeys, and the new rank he holds

The American is a new man, who acts upon new principles.He must therefore entertain new ideas and form new opinions...this is an American.(2)According to Crevecoeur, The American in those days had the mixed blood of Europeans or their descendants without taking into consideration other nationalities such as American Indians and blacks.But today, the picture of an American is more complex.1.What is an American?

He is either a European, or the descendant of a European, hence that strange mixture of blood, which you will find in no other country.He is an American, who leaving behind him his entire ancient prejudices and manners, receives new ones from the new mode of life he has embraced, the new government he obeys, and the new rank he holds....Here individuals of all nations are melted into a new race of men, whose labors and posterity will one day cause great changes in the world....The American is a new man, who acts new principles;he must therefore entertain new ideas, and form new opinions.2.How did modern development in Europe influence the settlement of North American colonies?

Some new and powerful social forces began to emerge which led to the awakening of Europe and the discovery of America.The first new force was the development of capitalism, and it produced the bourgeois class and the working class.The second major force was Renaissance, which was marked by a changing outlook on life.The third influential force was Religious Reformation, a religious reform movement that started form Germany.3.What was the unique American phenomenon? How did it come into being? Do you think it still exists in today's American society?

on the one hand, the English and other Europeans went to North American for seeking freedom.But on the other hand, these very white people who were seeking and fighting for their own freedom deprived black Africans of their freedom

The two events combined constituted a unique American.First one is that on July, 30, 1619, the first meeting of an elected legislature took place in North American.The second one is a Dutch ship brought in over 20 Negroes, who were acted as servants for years.Yes, I do.4.In what way did Puritanism influence American culture?

The Puritans believed that governments should enforce God's morality.They strictly punished drunks, adulterers, violators of the Sabbath and other religious believers different from themselves.Roger Williams, one of the Puritans who protested that the state should not interfere with religion, was driven out of Massachusetts.In 1635, he set up Rhode Island colony, which guaranteed religious freedom and the separation of church and state.The Puritans also have left rich cultural heritage to future Americans.The American values such as individualism, hard work, and respect of education owe very much to the Puritan beliefs.4.In what way did Puritanism influence American culture?

(1).Today, Puritans are no longer in existence.But their legacies are still felt in American society and culture.For example, the Puritans hoped to build “a city upon hill” an ideal community.Since that time, Americans have viewed their country as a great experiment, a worthy model for other nations.This sense of mission has been very strong in the minds of many Americans.(2).The Puritans also have left rich cultural heritage to future Americans.The American values such as individualism, hard work, and respect of education owe very much to the Puritan beliefs.Unit 4

2.What is a federal system? What are some of the major differences between a federal system and a confederation?

The Constitution set up a federal system with a strong central government.A federal system is one in which power is shared between a central authority and its constituent parts, with some rights reserved to each.The Constitution also called for the election of a national leader, or president.It provided that federal laws would be made only by a Congress made up of

representatives elected by the people.It also provided for a national court system headed by a Supreme Court.3.What are some of the major powers of each of the three branches of the U.S.government? How are the three branches supposed to check and balance each other?

If Congress proposes a law that the president thinks is unwise, the president can veto it.That means the proposal does not become law.Congress can enact the law despite the president's views only if two-thirds of the members of both houses vote in favor of it.If Congress passes a law which is then challenged in the courts as unconstitutional, the Supreme Court has the power to declare the law unconstitutional and therefore no longer in effect.The president has the power to make treaties with other nations and to make all appointments to federal positions, including the position of Supreme Court justice.The Senate, however, must approve all treaties and confirm all appointments before they become official.In this way the Congress can prevent the president from making unwise appointments.3.What are some of the major powers of each of the three branches of the U.S.government? How are the three branches supposed to check and balance each other?

(A)1.--the legislative branch is made up of elected representatives from all of the states and is the only branch that can make federal laws, levy federal taxes and declare war or put foreign treaties into effect.It consists of a Congress that is divided into the House of Representative and the Senate.The House of Representatives has 435 members who serve two-year terms.The Senate comprises 100 lawmakers who serve six-year terms.Each state, regardless of population, has two senators.2.--the executive branch is the president, who is elected to a four-year term.A president can be elected to only two terms according to an amendment passed in 1951.The president can appoint federal judges as vacancies occur.He is the commander in chief of the armed forces.The president has other broad authorities in running the government departments and handling foreign relations.3.--the judicial branch is headed by the Supreme Court with a chief justice and 8 associate justices.The Federal courts have jurisdiction over cases arising out of the Constitution and other cases which do not arise out of individual states.The Supreme Court has the judicial review power, the power determining whether congressional legislation or executive action violates the Constitution.(B)1.If Congress proposes a law that the president thinks is unwise, the president can veto it.2.If Congress passes a law which is then challenged in the courts as unconstitutional, the Supreme Court has the power to declare the law unconstitutional and therefore no longer in effect.3.The president has the power to make treaties with other nations and to make all appointments to federal positions, including the position of Supreme Court justice.The Senate, however, must approve all treaties and confirm all appointments before they become official.In this way the Congress can prevent the president from making unwise appointments.4．What is the Bill of Rights? Do you think that it was necessary to write the Bill of Rights explicitly into the U.S.Constitution?

The Bill of Rights: the first 10 amendments, collectively known as the Bill of Rights, were added within two years of the adoption of the U.S.Constitution.These amendments remain intact today, as they were written two centuries ago.The first guarantees freedom of worship, speech and press, the right of peaceful assembly, and the right to petition the government to correct wrongs.The Bill of Rights and subsequent constitutional amendments guarantee the American people the fullest possible opportunity to enjoy fundamental human rights.UNIT 6

2.What is the relationship between government and religion in America?

In some ways, the government supports all religions.Religious groups do not pay taxes in the United States.But government does not pay ministers' salaries or require any belief—not even a belief in God—as a condition of holding public office.Oaths are administered, but those who, like Quakers, object to them, can make a solemn affirmation, or declaration, instead

4.What are some of the features in religion that are particularly American? What are some of the major differences between American religion and religion in Europe?

First of all, Americans with different religions live together under the same law.Secondly, the religious beliefs of Americans continue to be strong with social progress.In Europe, scientific and economic advance and rising material prosperity have accompanied by a decline in religious observance in the US, this has not happened.Thirdly, in the United States every church is a completely independent organization, and

concerned with its own finance and its own building.There has been little concentration on doctrine or religious argument such as in European history,Unit 7

5.Why did Mark Twain win so many readers both at home and abroad?

Mark Twain was the first major American writer to be born away from the East Coast.He grew up in a small town on the banks of the Mississippi River and received only a basic public school education.He began working in a printer’s jobs in the Midwest and the West.Twin was a new voice, an original genius, a man of the people.And he quickly won readers.UNIT 8

1.What is the goal of education in the United States? Discuss the similarities and differences in Great Britain, the United States and China concerning the goals of education.The goal is—and has been since the early decades of the republic—to achieve universal literacy and to provide individuals with the knowledge and skills necessary to promote both their own individual welfare as well as that of the general public.Though this goal has not yet been fully achieved, it remains an ideal toward which the American educational system is directed.The progress which has been made is notable both for its scope and for the educational methods which have been developed in the process of achieving it.3.What are the major characteristics of education in America?

(1)Different education laws for different states.(2)Several levels of schooling：Elementary Schooling，Secondary Schooling and High Schooling.(3)Curricula for students: there is no national curriculum in the United States.(3)Compulsory education for all students.(4)Equal education opportunities for minority groups.(5)Strong demand for higher education.(6)The complex system of higher education.Some states play a strong role in the selection of learning material for their students.Schools were asked not only to teach this new information, but to help students ask their own questions about it.The “inquiry” method of learning, focusing on solving problems rather than memorizing facts, became popular.3.What are the major characteristics of education in America?

1.About 85% of American students attend public schools(schools supported by American taxpayers).The other 15% attend private schools, for which their families choose to pay special attendance fees.Four out of five private schools in the United States are run by churches, synagogues or other religious groups.In such schools, religious teachings are a part of the curriculum.2.Each of the 50 states in the United States has its own laws regulating education.From state to state, some laws are similar;others are not.Education in the United States was to remain in the hands of state and local governments.3.Americans have a strong tendency to educate their children about major public concerns—problems such as environmental pollution, nuclear issues, neighborhood crime and drugs.

第二篇：概况试题-美国

1、Puritanism

Puritans were those who followed the doctrine of John Calvin and wanted to purify the Church of England.They believe that human beings were predestined by God before they were born.Some were God's chosen people while others were damned to hell.No church nor good works could save people.The sign of being God's elect was the success in his work or the prosperity in his calling.They also argued that everyone must read the Bible in order to find God's will and establish a direct contact with God.These beliefs had great impact on American culture.2.the American Revolution

Between 1689 and 1815, france and Britain fought Seven Years’ war, and North American was drawn into everyone of them.Britain’s victory led directly to a conflict with its American colonies.The British government argued that Britain had spent large sums of money to defend their American colonies in those wars, and that the colonists therefore should pay a part of those expenses.So the british government began to charge new taxes.But the colonists refused to obey the british laws and cry” no taxation without representation”.On April 19,1775,the first shot was fired when 700 British soldiers went to capture a colonial arms depot in a small town of Concord near Boston.The American War of Independence began.And the war came to an end in 1781 with the victory of north american.The Treaty of Paris was signed in 1783 and Britian had to recognize the independence of the United States.A new nation was thus born.3.the Declaration of Independence

The Declaration of Independence was mainly drafted by Thomas Jefferson and adopted by the Congress on July 4,1776,when the people of 13 English colonials in North America were fighting for their freedom and independence from the British colonial rule.The document declared that all men were equal and that they were entitled to have some unalienable rights such as life,liberty and the pursuit of happiness.It also explained the philosophy of government:the powers of governments came from the consent of the governed and the purpose of governments were to secure the rights mentioned above.The theory of politics and the guiding principles of the American Revolution mainly came from John Locke.4.American Constitution

The Constitution of the United States is the supreme law of the United States of America.The Constitution is the framework for the organization of the United States government and for the relationship of the federal government with the states, citizens, and all people within the United States.The Constitution creates the three branches of the national government: a legislature, the bicameral Congress;an executive branch led by the President;and a judicial branch headed by the Supreme Court.The Constitution specifies the powers and duties of each branch.The Constitution reserves all unenumerated powers to the respective states and the people, thereby establishing the federal system of government.5.checks and balances

When Americans talk about their three-part national government, they often refer to what they call its system of “checks and balances”.This system works in many ways to keep serious mistakes from being made by legislative branch or executive branch or judicial branch.6.Federalism

Federalism in the United States is the evolving relationship between state governments and the federal government of the United States.American government has evolved from a system of dual federalism to one of associative federalism.In “Federalist No.46,” James Madison asserted that the states and national government “are in fact but different agents and trustees of the people, constituted with different powers.” Alexander Hamilton, writing in “Federalist No.28,” suggested that both levels of government would exercise authority to the citizens' benefit: “If their [the peoples'] rights are invaded by either, they can make use of the other as the instrument of redress.”

7.the Bill of Rights

The Bill of Rights consists of the first 10 amendments which were added to the Constitution in 1791.The Bill of Rights was passed to guarantee freedom and individual rights such as freedom of speech,the right to assemble in public places,the right to own weapons and so on.8.Political parties in the US

Political parties are organized groups of people who share a set of ideas about how the US should be governed and who work together to have members of their group elected in order to influence the governing of the country.today ,the US has two major political parties.one in the Democratic Party,which evolved out of Thomas Jefferson's party,formed before 1800.the symbol of the party is the donkey.the other is the Republican Party,which was formed in the 1850s,and its symbol is the elephant.9、the roots of affluence in America

No single factor is responsible for the success of American business and industry.Bountiful resources,the geographical size of the country and population trends have all contributed to these success.Religious,social and political traditions;the institutional structures of government and business;and the courage,hard work and determination of countless entrepreners and workers have also played a part.10.American industrial revolution

After independence, America was principally an agricultural country.The industrial revolution in England brought many changes to American industry between 1776 and 1860.One key development was the introduction of the factory system.A second development was the “American system” of mass production.A third development was the application of new technologies to industrial task.A fourth development was the emergence of new forms of business organization—the bank and the corporation.11.Civil Rights Movement

The civil rights movement was a worldwide political movement for equality before the law occurring between approximately 1950 and 1980.In many situations it took the form of campaigns of civil resistance aimed at achieving change by nonviolent forms of resistance.In some situations it was accompanied, or followed, by civil unrest and armed rebellion.The process was long and tenuous in many countries, and many of these movements did not fully achieve their goals although, the efforts of these movements did lead to improvements in the legal rights of previously oppressed groups of people.12.Martin luther King

Martin Luther King, Jr.(January 15, 1929 – April 4, 1968)was an American clergyman, activist, and prominent leader in the African-American Civil Rights Movement.He is best known for being an iconic figure in the advancement of civil rights in the United States and around the world, using nonviolent methods following the teachings of Mahatma Gandhi.King is often presented as a heroic leader in the history of modern American liberalism.A Baptist minister, King became a civil rights activist early in his career.He led the 1955 Montgomery Bus Boycott and helped found the Southern Christian Leadership Conference in 1957, serving as its first president.King's efforts led to the 1963 March on Washington, where King delivered his “I Have a Dream” speech.There, he expanded American values to include the vision of a color blind society, and established his reputation as one of the greatest orators in American history.13.Counterculture

In the wake of the Free Speech Movement and the New Left,there appeared a phenomenon that historians called the “counterculture.”the counterculture rejected capitalism and other American principles.they had morals different from those taught by their parents.some groups of youth tried to construct different ways of life.among the most famous were the hippies.they sought new experience through dropping out,and drug taking.but it was music,rock music in particular,that became the chief vehicle for the counter cultural assault on the traditional American society.the counterculture exerted a great influence upon people's attitudes toward social morals,marriage,career and success.14、Hippies

The hippies called themselves “the love generation.” Hippiness became their only goal in life.Their music was different from any other music, and the words they sang sounded rebellious to older people.Small groups of youth lived together in cities like San Francisco,turning their lives into one big party.They wore long hair,strange and colorful clothes and many of them used drugs.They went in huge numbers to rock music concerts, and tyey made very interesting news on TV.15.Multiculturalism in Canada

Multiculturalism in Canada was adopted as the official policy of the Canadian government during the prime ministership of Pierre Elliot Trudeau in the 1970s and 1980s.The Canadian government has often been described as the instigator of multicultural ideology because of its public emphasis on the social importance of immigration.Multiculturalism is reflected in the law through the Canadian Multiculturalism Act and section 27 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.

第三篇：美国概况习题

美国概况

Part One Geography

Chapter IIPopulation

Exercises

 New York is the largest state in the US.(T/F)

 Why is the U.S.A.called “Melting Pot”?

Answers

 F(Alaska)

 Because the U.S.A.is country where there are many different races, and these races mixed and assimilated after they

immigrated into this country “Melting Pot” just signifies this mixture and assimilation.Chapter VReligion in the U.S.A.Exercises

 The popular American belief is___

A.part-time working

B.self-made man

C.manual labor

D.being extravagant

 The largest religious group in America is___

A.Roman CatholicsB.Protestants

C.OrthodistsD.Presbyterians

the American spirit of “do-it-yourself”:

Answers

 BB

the American spirit of “do-it-yourself”:

People are proud of doing everything by themselves.Most of the American families seldom hire people to do housework though they are rich.They try to do what they can do, such as housework, gardening and they enjoy doing them.Part twoHistory

Chapter IColonization of North America

Exercises

 The history of the U.S.is generally agreed to have begun in the year of ____

A.1620B.1607C.1776D.1492

 The turning point of the War of Independence was the Battle of ___in 1777.A.YorktownB.Saratoga

C.Bunker HillD.Lexington

 Lexington Fire was the ___of American War of Independence

A.turning pointB.endingC.causeD.prelude

Answers

BBD

Chapter IVThe American Civil War(1861-1865)

Exercises

 Abraham Lincoln

 In 1860 Abraham Lincoln was elected president, an anti-slavery president.He played a very important measures.One

was the Homestead Bill, the other was Emancipation Proclamation in every field.In 1864, he was reelected president.He was assassinated in April 13,1865.He saved the Union and most Americans considered him a great national hero.Homework

 Why was there the New Deal program? What was it? And how did it aid the recovery of the American economy?  What important measures did Abraham Lincoln take during the Civil War? How do you evaluate them?

Chapter VThe U.S.Imperialism and the First World War

Exercises

 The first imperialist war took place between theU.S.and ___in 1898.A.BritainB.FranceC.SpainD.Mexico

 The “Big Stick” Policy was advanced by President___.A.Theodore RooseveltB.Franklin Roosevelt

C.William MckinleyD.Thomas Woodrow Wilson

 President Franklin D.Roosevelt proposed a well-knownpolicy called___ to save the economic situation.A.the Open Door PolicyB.the New Deal

C.Good Neighbor PolicyD.the “Big Stick”

AnswersCAB

PartTheresociallife

Chapter IIICustoms and Traditions

Exercises

 Easter:

Easter falls on the first Sunday after the full moon, in March or in April.It commemorates the Resurrection of Jesus.The custom of dying eggs is very popular among children.The main meat on Easter Sunday are lamb and ham. Thanksgiving Day:

It falls on the fourth Thursday of November.It is a holiday on which God is thanked for the crops which have been safely gathered. Abraham Lincoln

 In 1860 Abraham Lincoln was elected president, an anti-slavery president.He played a very important

measures.One was the Homestead Bill, the other was Emancipation Proclamation in every field.In 1864, he was reelected president.He was assassinated in April 13,1865.He saved the Union and most Americans considered him a great national hero.

第四篇：美国棉花生产概况

美国棉花生产概况

1.植棉简史：目前世界上栽培面积最大的陆地棉品种就发源在美国边界附近。公元前500年，美国西南部的祖尼(Zuni)和霍皮(Hopi)地区的印第安人在举行宗教仪式时就开始使用棉花。1536年得克萨斯和路易斯安那州就种植了棉花；1607年开始引种陆地棉，在当时的作品中发现了弗吉尼亚移民最早栽培棉花的痕迹，随后棉花栽培逐渐发展；1784年美国的原棉从查尔斯顿(南卡罗来纳州)出发海运到英国的利物浦；1785年后引种海岛棉。1793年美国惠特尼(Whitney)发明了锯齿轧花机后，美国的棉花生产得以迅速扩大，并开始更认真地从墨西哥引种进行培育。从19世纪初到1925年左右，美国的许多州扩种了棉花，形成了“棉花带”，棉花面积达1600万公顷，总产皮棉1700万包，占世界棉花产量的60％，达到高峰。同时，各地建立了许多棉花纺织厂；1801年建立了第一座棉籽榨油厂；1879年因新法炼油技术的成功使棉籽油更受消费者欢迎，也促进了此业的飞速发展，当时，美国棉籽油产量25000吨,到1963年达到创历史的906000吨，棉籽饼产量达到2500万吨。

2.棉区分布：美国是世界产棉大国，也是棉花的主要出口国。目前，东起大西洋西岸，西到太平洋东岸，横贯美国南部的17个州均可植棉，统称“棉花带”，此带北界与纬度37°线、无霜期200天线基本相符。只在密西西比河流域和土质肥沃，植棉收益较高的弗吉尼亚州南部，以及加利福尼亚州的圣华金河谷地棉区稍北越过此界，达北纬38.2°。棉区多属河流冲积平原，土壤多为砂壤土或黑钙土，土质肥沃，气候温暖，自然条件比较适宜于棉花生产。美国棉花带划分为四个棉区：(1)西部棉区：包括加利福尼亚、亚利桑那和新墨西哥三个州。干旱少雨，棉田全部实行灌溉。棉花收获面积约占全国的18％，总产占全国棉花产量30％。皮棉单产50-99公斤。(2)西南棉区：又称高原棉区，包括得克萨斯、俄克拉何马和堪萨斯州三个州。海拔1500－3500米，属半干旱地区。棉花收获面积约占全国棉田44％，总产占全国棉花产量29％。(3)中南棉区：又称密西西比三角洲棉区，包括密西西比、路易斯安那、阿肯色、田纳西、密苏里五个州、靠自然降雨植棉。年降雨量800-1000毫米。棉花收获面积约占全国的30%，总产占32％，皮棉折合亩产为48公斤左右。(4)东部地区：包括南卡罗来纳、北卡罗来纳、佐治亚、亚拉巴马、佛罗里达、弗吉尼亚六个州。年降雨量1000-1500毫米，靠自然降雨植棉。棉田收获面积约占全国的8％，皮棉单产45公斤左右，总产占全国的9％。我们所考察的得克萨斯州是全美国棉花产量最大的州，年种植面积达550万英亩，产值达15.6亿美元，总产约占全美的三分之一。位于得克萨斯州西北部的拉伯克（LUBBOCK）地区，地势平坦，气候适宜，棉花连片种植面积达350多万英亩（2124万亩），号称是世界上最大的陆地棉区；加利福尼亚州种植面积排名第二，年植棉面积达130万英亩，产值达9亿美元。美国棉花品种以陆地棉为主，美洲比马棉（长绒棉）为辅。例如，1995年全国棉花种植总面积达1600.6万英亩，其中陆地棉面积为1579.5万英亩，美洲比马棉为21.1万英亩，1995年棉花总产量为86.51亿磅，其中陆地棉为84.78亿磅，美洲比马棉为1.73亿磅，1995年棉花总产值达65.51亿美元，其中陆地棉63.30亿美元，美洲比马棉为2.21亿美元，棉花出口占世界的21%。

3.棉花种植面积和产量：美国棉花种植面积，从1945-1953年一直稳定在13000万亩左右，50年代后逐步减少；1967年减少到4854万亩；1969年开始回升达6711万亩；1981年棉田收获面积达8401万亩； 1982年棉田又减少到5908万亩； 1983年棉田继续下降到4460万亩； 1987年开始回升；1991年棉田收获面积达到7867万亩，皮棉单产48.73公斤，总产达7670万担，年末库存1612万担。到1998年，美国棉花的收获面积达到6677万亩，总产约300万吨，平均亩产为45公斤左右。目前，有35000个农户从事棉花生产。

4.棉花生产的特点：美国棉花生产的主要特点是：(1)机械化程度高。美国人少地多，农业人口占2%，为了节省劳力，只有实行机械化。从整地、播种、灌溉、施肥、植保到收获，全部采用大型植棉机具作业，质量好，效率高，成本低。种一亩棉花投工约为3个工时(约合0.4个工作日)，用工量是全世界最少的。(2)全面推广棉花优良品种。每个地区推广的棉花优良品种应由区试委员会和美国农业部共同讨论确定，种子生产商品化，并由种子公司统一供应。目前，有60%的品种为转基因抗虫棉；(3)棉花生产规模大规范化程度高。一个植棉方或圆型灌区就有几百英亩，一个农场主就经营2000英亩左右的棉田。棉田平整，起垅种植，采用大型喷灌，虹吸灌溉和中心灌溉系统，科学施肥，棉杆还田，病虫害综合防治，棉田化除无杂草，棉株长势均衡，化学脱叶，一次性机械收获；(4)综合技术服务全面、系统。出租农业机械，出售棉花良种、化肥、农药，运输、建筑、修理、水利、农业工程以及棉花加工等都有专业公司、工厂为植棉农场服务。在植棉技术上也有技术研究与推广中心给予科学指导和服务；(5)国家对棉花生产实行扶持和保护政策，并制定每磅皮棉50美分的最低保护价，棉农每年的植棉收入低于一定数额时，国家也要给予一定的补贴，以鼓励棉农种植棉花。

5.皮棉价格和原棉外销

美棉出口市场主要面向亚洲、大洋洲、欧洲、非洲与中东地区。其中亚洲和欧洲是美棉出口的最大市场。70-80年代进口量较大的买方国家为日本、朝鲜、中国(包括台湾、香港)、印度尼西亚、泰国、德国、意大利、加拿大。90年代以来，进口量较大的买方国家仍为亚洲几国：中国(包括台湾、香港)、日本、朝鲜、印度尼西亚、泰国，其次为埃及、墨西哥、意大利、加拿大、德国等。

第五篇：美国工业设计发展概况

美国工业设计发展的背景和概况

正当欧洲各国进行现代主义设计的探索与试验的时候，美国人则基于商业竞争要求，全力以赴地开始了为企业服务的工业设计运动，在美国，这场运动并没有多少学究味道，也没有什么知识分子的理想主义成份，可以说，从一开始起，美国的设计运动就沾满了实用主义的商业气息。美国芝加哥建筑派的领导人物之一一路易斯（Louis Suliivan）曾经在1907 年总结设计的原则时说：设计应该遵循“形式追随功能”的宗旨。美国人虽然提出这条原则，但是在美国竞争激烈的商业市场上，设计所遵循的其实是“形式追随市场”，对于企业来说，最重要的并不是设计能否给社会带来益处，或者对于整个人民的生活有所改善，设计唯一的要点是能够促进销售。因此，约束美国早期工业设计发展的力量不是知识分子的理想主义，也不是社会民主主义，而是十足的商业竞争。市场竞争机制在发展美国设计中起到了决定性的作用。这正是为什么欧洲各国对美国的设计以为不足挂齿的地方。

虽然市场竞争充满了金钱的味道，缺乏欧洲现代主义设计的那种学究味，也缺乏充满了理想、充满了试验的设计运动和设计集团，但是，市场机制本身却不可否定地具有非常惊人的供求关系调节功能。也就是经济学家亚当·史密斯（Adam Smith）所说的看不见的手的市场经济神奇功能。市场机制决定了需要什么，不需要什么，为了符合市场需求，企业不得不提供不同的产品、包装，利用各种各样的广告来促进销售，这种背景使美国的设计得到比欧洲更加具体、范围更加广泛的发展。而这种发展与市场是密切相连的，与大批量生产是密切相联的。美国早在20 世纪20 年代已经是世界上工业化程度最高的国家之一了。1933 年，在经济大危机过去后，罗斯福实行经济宏观改革的新政（New Deal）之后，美国经济进入高速发展阶段，特别是历经第二次世界大战的发展，美国成为世界最强大的经济大国，具有强大的生产力和庞大的国内市场，在开始成熟的国际市场上拥有很大的占有率，凭借着这种经济力量，美国的设计也得到高速的发展，美国的设计教育也因而得到发展。凭籍着这种强大的国家经济实力，美国人虽然没有多少类似包豪斯式的学院探索，但是，美国却几乎是轻而易举地把欧洲人奋斗了20 年的这个设计理想在企业中、在市场上变成了现实，到包豪斯1933 年被希特勒封闭，大部分包豪斯原来的教员和学生移民到美国，他们发现了设计和设计教育试验的最佳土壤原来不是欧洲，而是美国。欧洲的观念和美国的市场结合，终于在战后造成轰轰烈烈的国际主义设计运动。

美国现代设计的发展是非常不平衡的：虽然美国现代建筑市场需求量极大，高层建筑在19 世纪末和20 世纪初成为各个主要城市的建筑中心，也出现过像弗兰克这样的建筑大师，但是，一直到30 年代末期，美国也还没有形成一个能够与德国、俄国相比的现代建筑设计运动。这种情况一直到30 年代末，当包豪斯的主要领导人物都移民来到美国以后，才出现了巨大的变化，因此，战后美国发起的国际主义建筑运动，其实与德国现代主义有不可分割的千丝万缕的联系。美国的工业产品设计比世界上任何一个国家都发展得迅速和成熟。虽然德国的彼得·贝伦斯早在1907 年就开始为德国电器公司设计家用电器，但是，德国的工业产品设计直到第二次世界大战爆发前夕，依然是远远落后于美国，这个现象的原因可能与国家的经济情况、经济政策的重点、设计界和企业界对设计的基本立场和原则分不开。美国的平面设计则从开始就具有自己的特点，它的发展与广告等促销活动密切关联，因而，发展得非常迅速，战争期间虽然也如同欧洲一样，出现了为政治服务的平面设计运动―政治宣传画，但是，主流一直是商业的。在各种设计范畴中，美国显得最为突出的是工业产品设计，或者说是工业设计。

如果说德国人对于设计的最大贡献是建立了现代设计的理论和教育体系，进行了大量的试验，把社会利益当作设计教育和设计本身目的，那么，美国对于世界设计的最重要的贡献就是发展了工业设计，并且把工业设计职业化。由于美国的工业发达、经济成熟，美国是世界上第一个把工业设计变成一门独立职业的国家。而这个职业化的过程早在20 世纪20 年代末期已经开始在美国的纽 1 约、芝加哥等地开始出现了

美国工业的一个重要的发展刺激因素是第一次世界大战。战争对于军需用品和武器的需求大幅度增加，因而刺激了美国的工业发展。战后，美国的工业进入一个高速的发展阶段。1918 年战争结束后，美国战时工业立即迅速转向消费品工业的生产，消费品的生产无论从产量或者质量来说，都是当时世界空前的。美国工业开始进人大批量生产阶段，科学管理、流水生产线等等新的管理和生产方法都开始被引人和采用。标准化和理性式的制度规范化是这次工业生产改革的中心。企业家尽量设法降低生产成本，提高产量，以达到创造更高利润的目的。另一方面，为了促进市场的销售，广告、企业形象、商标等种种促销手段也开始被广泛采用，市场竞争日益激烈。

1927 年前后，美国的经济出现衰退的迹象。越来越多的小企业由于市场竞争失败而破产，而这种经济衰退的恶劣发展情况，在1929 年的华尔街股票市场崩溃时达到顶点，美国全国进入一次空前的经济大危机。危机延续了3 年之久，一直到1933 年罗斯福总统上台，大规模采用“新政”的经济改革政策，改变美国以往政府对于宏观经济放任自流的基本立场，转为大规模的从金融、投资、税收、社会福利等等方面进行干预，由国家投资进行各种大规模的基本经济建设项目，用以工代贩的基本原则来促进就业，通过联邦储备系统对市场货币供应量的宏观调节来控制经济发展。这样，美国经济才重新出现复兴的迹象。危机期间，企业为了生存，采用的竞争手段更加激烈和强化，这是美国市场竞争技巧发展的一个重要的刺激因素，换言之，是美国现代设计的发韧点。为了适应市场需求，美国大企业，特别是汽车制造业在此时成立了汽车外型设计部门，雇用了专业的造型设计师，形成了最早的企业内部工业设计部门。另外一方面，由于市场需求日益增加，出现了一些独立的设计事务所，根据客户的要求从事工业产品、包装、企业标志和企业形象等方面的设计，这些设计事务所往往与大企业有长期的合作关系，形成了活跃的设计市场活动，也出现了美国第一代的工业设计师。

美国新一代的设计师，也就是我们称为第一代的工业设计师就是在危机的竞争当中产生的。他们与欧洲第一代现代设计师不同，欧洲第一代设计师的背景基本上都是建筑师，同时他们都有坚实的高等专业教育基础，大部分是建筑专业毕业的，并且有长期的建筑设计经验。比如德国的彼得·贝伦斯、沃尔特·格罗佩斯、米斯·凡德洛、芬兰的阿尔瓦·阿图、荷兰的乌德、比利时的亨利·凡德·威尔德、奥地利的约瑟夫·霍夫曼等等。美国的第一代工业设计师的专业背景也参差不齐，不少人甚至没有正式的高等教育背景。他们设计的对象也比较繁杂，自从他们设立工业设计事务所以来，他们可以说从汽水瓶到火车头都设计，对干欧洲人来说，这样庞杂的设计方向简直是不可思议的。而他们的设计方法也非常不一样，往往比欧洲设计时间短、效率高、缺乏认真的社会因素思考，而长于市场竞争。这些设计师都有非常特殊的设计表现能力，他们的设计预想图都画得比欧洲的同行漂亮，也讲究商业谈判的技术，因为他们的目的是做设计生意，而不是研究设计的社会功能。他们都没有什么理论和设计哲学，也不象他们的欧洲同行有那么多的著作，但是他们都设计了数量惊人的产品、包装、企业形象，从设计的实用性来说，他们比他们的欧洲同行发达得多，灵活得多，而从设计观念来说，他们又显得浅薄。无论他们与欧洲设计的差别有多么大，但是，通过他们的努力，工业设计却终于成为市场促销、市场竞争的一个重要组成部分从而被美国市场、美国企业界接受，这是一个非常重要的成就。从此以后，工业设计就在美国生根了。因此，可以说，真正把工业设计扎扎实实地扎人工业企业界的，是美国的第一代工业设计师们。

专业背景和教育背景的不同造成设计发展趋向不同，这是美国与欧洲设计的一个非常大的区别。与欧洲第一代工业产品设计师的建筑设计背景完全不同，美国第一代的工业设计师不少人的专业背景是广告业、商业艺术、橱窗设计和其它展示设计行业，甚至是舞台设计。这种背景使他们在设计上与他们的欧洲同事有很大区别：建筑师比较强调设计的社会效应、设计对于大环境可能造成的影响、现代设计对于民族传统的继承性和发展性，以及设计本身的社会含义。他们对于设计师本身的文化和教育素质的要求，对于严格的设计教学体系的建立非常重视，因为，没有这样的素质和这样的教育体系，是不可能培养出真正有责任感、有高度文化品味的建筑家的。而主要从事展示、2 促销工作的设计师则比较讲究短期的市场促销效果，对干建筑设计师一向强调的那些社会因素比较淡漠。因为展示设计的目的是促进销售，设计的产品具有积极的市场冲击性，但是同时也具有短暂的、用毕即抛的特点，而并非制造出比较永恒的产品，建设起一个起码可以屹立百年的建筑物，因此，美国的工业设计师们对于设计形式造成的商业效果有明确的迫求，对设计的观念，它会造成的社会影响作用则考虑不多。这种特征是由他们的职业背景造成的，原因是这些行业使他们对于商业竞争有比较切身的体会和认识。这些行业还有另外一个日后成为工业设计的重要特点：集团式的工作和娴熟的商业谈判习惯。商业设计需要一组人的同心协力，因而，他们都习惯于集体工作，习惯于与客户打交道，习惯于与市场专家、市场调查人员联系，对于形成工业设计来说，这是非常重要的一个特征。而这种特征在设计教育上的反映，就是对于表达技法的重视和对于设计观念的淡漠，美国设计教育目前依然具有非常鲜明的重技法、重表现技术和轻视观念的特征。

美国是世界最大的经济强国，设计高度发达。80年代，由于美国经济结构的改变，特别是制造业的衰退和服务行业的日益强大，使设计业也发生了很大的改变，工业设计逐步变成综合设计，而不仅仅是针对产品的设计，这在本书第一章中有详细的论述。而平面设计则因为媒介的转变，日益发展为多元媒体设计，这种趋势目前依然在进一步发展。

美国设计是世界设计当中的一个非常具有影响力、但是又非常独特的组成部分。美国是一个由移民组成的新国家，没有长期的发展历史，同时又没有所谓单一的民族传统，但是具有资本主义世界各国当中最快的经济发展速度，是目前世界上独一无二的超级经济强国，拥有巨大的国内市场，它的经济实力又使它具有相当巨大的国际市场占有率。因此，形成许多与欧洲其它国家设计发展所不同的特点。

特点之一是美国设计一向主张多元风格，反对设计上的单一风格垄断。美国人对于单一设计风格的厌恶是非常强烈的。欧洲设计经常是单一性的，比如德国设计、荷兰设计等等，这种设计上的统一性特征，或者英文称为的monotheism，是美国人最不能忍受的，因为美国是一个多民族组成的国家，从人口组成上已经具有多元特征，用同样的风格去适应多元的民族组成，可以说根本没有可能。美国设计上的反单一主义，是一个举世闻名的特征，美国的建筑设计、产品设计、平面设计、服装设计等等，总是杂七杂八，什么风格都有，体现了这个国家多民族的特征。由于美国是由移民组成的国家，因此没有一种特别的民族特征是可以成为国家的基本设计风格依据的，折衷主义于是就成为十分普遍的设计动机。

另外一个显著的特征，是美国人的幽默性。对于一个拿传统和严肃的规范开玩笑的特点，这种特征特别容易从美国的平面设计上看出来。比如交通标志设计，在欧洲与日本都严格到几近冷酷的地步，不许停车的标志，往往都是一个P 字（英语停的首写字母），加上一个红色的横叉，没有任何讨价还价的余地。而美国虽然也用同样的标志，但是，往往还会加上一些令人高兴的官方椰榆，比如从新泽西州穿过哈德逊河的“荷兰人隧道”，因为交通极其繁忙，全线不许停车，因而设有不许停车的标志，第一个是标准的有红叉的P 字标记，第二个标记则是一句话：“我们是讲真的！”，很快就有第三个标记，也是一句话：“想都不要想在这里停车！”(Don ' t Even Think or Parking Here!）。这种幽默的交通标记，全世界大约只有美国人会用，看到这些标记之后，大家都会会心一笑，而遵守规则。类似的平面设计例子，比比皆是，难以一一列举，笔者在美国近10 年，经常看这些标志或者设计而捧腹，实在是很开心的。比如美国人的活泼、天真、好动、非权威化，造成美国人对于平面标准和设计符号的高度轻视，美国的平面设计是世界上最为活泼和趣味的一种，这与严肃的欧洲风格来比，和浪漫的法国风格来比，都具有很大的差别。美国人喜欢用文字做游戏，纽约设计家米尔顿·格拉斯（Milton Glass）设计的“我爱纽约！”就是一个非常典型的例子，以一个心型图案代表爱字，生动又有特点，这个设计现在已经传遍世界各地，被以各种方式转用。美国广告设计的幽默是世界著名的，他们天性乐观，经常开玩笑，这种性格自然从设计上表现出来，成为他们设计的一个特征。美国人常常说：如果都可以达到功能目的，为什么要那么严肃？这种民族 3 心态，是他们设计风格形成的一个重要基础。

美国同时又是一个高度民主的国家，国家的中心组成是中产阶级，因而，美国人对于法国设计上那种为权贵服务为中心的精英主义（elitism）也有非常强烈的反感，他们认为设计应该是为大众的，是人人可以共享的。反精英主义构成美国设计观念的另外一个特点。

美国的设计是外国设计的综合体现，各国的设计运动都在美国的设计上有所体现。比如德国包豪斯设计影响美国整个建筑与设计教育体系、战后的瑞士国际主义平面设计影响美国全国的设计风格等等，都是很好的例子。但是，却没有任何一种风格能够完全征服美国，美国的借鉴是折衷的、调侃的、戏谑的、欢乐的、自我为中心的。

美国设计的另外一个重要的特征是高度商业化。德国人的现代主义运动在很大程度上是一个社会运动，设计家们都具有强烈的社会责任感和使命感；美国的现代主义大师们则基本集中于市场竞争，如何通过设计使企业取得市场竞争的胜利是他们的主要关心，因而，在某种程度上，美国设计没有欧洲那么观念化、哲学化、理论化，而趋于实用化、商业化。它也不象意大利设计那样个人化，原因是美国的大批量工业生产不能承担个人化设计带来的小批量生产的萎缩结果。

美国人自己并不把自己的设计看得多么了不起，他们出版的书籍著作、杂志期刊上的论文，大篇幅的主要是介绍欧洲、日本的设计，而对于自己的设计，除了建筑之外，很少提及，这与欧洲各国、日本对于自己的设计的自豪态度形成非常强烈的对比。而欧洲人在讨论现代设计运动时也明显地贬低美国人，英国出版的各种讨论设计史的著作当中，美国人的贡献好像除了流线型风格之外，一无所有。

如果我们要综合美国设计特征，我以为特征是如下几个方面：

实用主义

折衷主义

商业主义

多元化

非精英主义

平面设计上的幽默性

对于世界流行风格的随波逐流特点

美国的现代设计应该说是有几个完全不同的发展线索。其一是美国的汽车设计，这是从通用汽车公司1923 年开始担任总裁的F ·斯隆开始发展出来的一套体系，目的主要是通过汽车外型的改观来达到市场促销的目的，因此称为式样化（Styling), 这种设计的目的是所谓的“有计划的废止制度”(Planned obsolescence)，利用改变外型来达到产品老化目的，促进销售。美国的这个体系从汽车设计开始，以后影响到其它的方面，形成现代设计的一个重要的组成部分。

第二条线索是从德国包豪斯体系演变出来的现代建筑设计体系。第二次世界大战期间，包豪斯的主要领导人物都纷纷移民美国，从而把欧洲的现代主义带到美国，经过美国的高等院校设计教育，特别是建筑设计教育，而形成战后的国际主义风格，影响世界。关于这点，我们在讨论国际主义风格时进行详细的探讨。

第三条发展线索是工业产品设计。虽然德国等国很早就开始了现代工业产品的设计，但是，美国是真正把工业设计变成一个职业的国家。

以上三条线索是平行发展的，互相之间虽然有所影响，但是各自具有本身的独立性，这是美国设计的非常重要的特色。只有象美国这样的历史短暂、移民组成的国家，才可能发展出设计上的这种多元并存的特征。

美国的平面设计具有上述的幽默、自由特色，而美国的工业设计却更多地受到工业生产的限制，因此没有平面设计那么自由。受到市场因素过多的影响，美国工业设计过于重视以有计划的废止制度为中心的设计方式，讲究流行风格对于销售的刺激，而美国国民对于设计的意识水平是西方国家中比较低的，这几个方面的因素使美国的工业设计在世界发达国家中相对水平比较低下。

美国国民设计意识和设计品味的低下的主要原因，是没有一个意识与品味的引导因素。欧洲各国具有悠久的历史传统，权贵阶级、特别是皇室和贵族对于设计的追求，造成社会和国民设计的品味标准，虽然大众不可能享有那些昂贵的产品，但是起码他们知道什么是高品味的设计，有一个追求的目标。而美国自从立国以来就没有过一个社会的权贵阶级存在，也没有过贵族社会，因此，难以形成一个影响品味和设计意识的核心。美国人讲究生活方便，不再乎产品式样的品味，因而造成美国有大量高水平的发明创造，而缺乏高水平的工业设计。美国的产品方便、安全、耐用、合理，但是难看，是很典型的。问题不在于设计水平，首先是社会根本没有强烈的对于设计的要求，所有的要求都集中在功能和价格上，美国消费者对干除功能与价格之外的造型因素的要求是非常低的。这种背景，造成美国设计上的高度发达的功能主义、实用主义和价格考虑，而唯独缺乏高品味的、高水准的外型设计，包括美国人最引以自豪的汽车设计，也是经常出现哗众取宠、虚张声势的趋向，缺乏欧洲或者日本汽车那种三易其稿、九朽一罢的设计上的精心思考和推敲。

典型的例子之一是亨利·德莱弗斯设计事务所设计的“宝利来”即时照相机（Polaroid), 从这种只有美国生产的照相机的观念上，就可以看出美国人追求方便的习惯。为了达到高度方便的功能、为了达到简单的性能要求，这种照相机在设计上不顾整体性外型，把各种各样的功能构件都附加上，外型缺乏统一、完整性，这在欧洲或者日本都是不能想象的设计上的缺点，而美国人却行若无事，已经使用这个设计好多年了。

从另外一个方面来看，美国是一个经济高度发达的移民国家，社会结构复杂、种族结构复杂、经济结构复杂，造成美国设计上极大的多元化状况，可以说世界上任何一种主要的设计风格和设计方式在美国都存在，世界上大多数重要的设计家都在美国有自己的市场。美国人一方面不在乎设计精细，而对于各种各样的设计也有最大的宽容度，设计的兼收并蓄式的多元化是美国工业设计的另外一个显著特点。

美国的设计受到平面设计影响很大，因为平面设计具有很高的娱乐性，非常符合美国人的性格，其中一个很大的特点，就是对于语言的兴趣。美国人在平面设计上经常以语言为中心发展，特别是幽默性的发展，看看美国重要的知识分子杂志《纽约客》（New Yorker）上的漫画就可以了解美国人如何重视语言在设计上的作用。《纽约时报》（New York Times）艺术主编斯蒂芬·赫勒（steven Helier）曾经说：他们（指美国人）喜欢游戏语言文字，因为他们的传统就是玩语言文字游戏的。美国的平面设计具有两个最重要的中心：纽约和加利福尼亚。前者是美国现代平面设计的发源地，其积极的商业风格和幽默特点，影响了美国平面设计的总体发展；后者则代表了美国设计上最自由、最前卫的特征，同时也是最早采用新手段、包括电脑设计在内的地区，在80 年代末和90 年代以来对于美国的影响特别大。加利福尼亚不但是美国设计师的集中地区，同时也是世界最杰出的设计家集中的地区，许多世界著名的设计家都来加州设立自己的设计事务所或者从事自由撰稿设计业务，对于丰富此地的设计和增强设计理论起到很大作用。这不但体现在平面设计上，在工业设计和建筑设计上也是如此，美国目前大部分重要的工业设计事务所、建筑设计事务所都在加利福尼亚州有自己的设计部门，世界主要的汽车公司，包括欧洲的八大汽车厂、日本的八大汽车公司、美国的三大汽车公司的设计总部都设在洛杉矶附近，就是一个很好的例子。