礼貌原则何处去

第一篇：礼貌原则何处去

礼貌原则何处去

1.礼貌原则的理论来源以及后期发展。

早在20世纪50年代，E。Goffman就从社会学角度提出了“面子”问题，他认为人际交往中无时无刻不涉及“脸面工作”，这一方面表现在人的行为受到面子的约束，另一方面人们也期待他人对自己的面子给予考虑。在Goffman的研究基础上，P.Brown和S.Levinson将礼貌行为分为两种：（1）积极礼貌，即满足对方面子上的正面要求（如表扬对方的地位，成就等）；（2）消极礼貌，即满足对方面子上的反面要求（如尽量不侵犯对方的人身、财产、自由等）。Leech的“礼貌原则”的提出则进一步完善了Brown Levinson的理论，为礼貌行为在交际中的实现提供了方法论。

2.Brown & Levinson的面子观。

他们认为面子的概念来自Goffman的面子行为理论和英国民间词语，是指每个社会成员想为自己争取的公开的自我形象。面子与尴尬，难看，或“丢脸”相联系。他们认为，说话人应该尊重听话人的自我形象，避免威胁听话人面子的行为。面子威胁程度的计算取决于交际双方之间的社会距离，社会权利的差别以及特定文化对具体言语行为强加程度的认定。面子管理的策略也划分为两类：负面面子策略和正面面子策略。负面面子策略强调听话人的自由权利，所以它是一种尊重策略。正面面子语用策略强调说话人与听话人之间的密切关系，所以它是一种亲近策略。

3.合作原则与礼貌原则的结合。

美国语言哲学家格莱斯（Grice）1967年在哈佛大学做的演讲《逻辑与会话》中，第一次论述了“合作原则”的具体内容，他吧说话者和听话者在会话中共同遵守的原则概括为量得准则、质的准则、关系准则和方式准则。20世纪80年代，英国语言学家利奇在格莱斯合作原则的基础上做了进一步补充，从修辞学、语体学的角度出发，提出了著名的礼貌原则。它包括得体准则、慷慨准则、赞誉准则、谦逊准则、一致准则和同情准则、礼貌原则体现了这样一条规律：尽量使自己吃亏，而使别人获利，这样做的目的在于取得对方的好感，从而使交际顺利进行，以便自己从中获得更大的利益。4.礼貌原则和“灰色系统理论”的结合。

“灰色系统理论（Grey System Theory）”是20世纪80年代由我国邓聚龙教授提出的。近来也有学者将“灰色系统理论”的概念和观点应用到语言、言语研究领域，以期解决动态的语句在语境当中的信息“灰色”问题。尽管当今科学十分发达，大脑因其不可知道的运作机制仍被人们喻为“黑箱”（Black Box）。根据“灰色系统理论”，大脑能够完全理解和处理的信息被称为“白色”信息，反之被称为“黑色”信息。介于“黑”与“白”两个极端之间，具有摇摆、转化、游移的非单一性、非确定性、非完全性的信息则被称为“灰色信息”。

通常说，言语交际的主要目的是向对方传递信息，尽量消除过程中信息的不明确性，使信息由“黑色”，“灰色”向“白色”转化。但另一方面，言语交际是复杂的社会活动。有时由于客观条件的制约，人们又需要适当降低明确度，提高灰度，以增强模糊性、含蓄性和可能性空间，吃那个人激活更多的相关外部信息。这种情况下就会出现相反的倾向：在不超出受话人理解限度的条件下，一定程度上违背“合作原则”，故意淡化信息某方面的明确性、单一性，倾向于提高信息灰度。所谓的“灰色信息”就是指的是这部分信息。可以看出，合作原则在言语交际中更多地决定信息是否精确及时地传递给受话者，起导向性作用，通常起到降低信息灰度的作用；而礼貌原则则决定交谈双方是否能在和谐、积极的其恩下完成言语交际，对会话者关系起润滑和促进作用，一般可以提高信息灰度；另一方面，灰度的减少可以增加信息的明确性，而灰度的增加可以使言语更间接、委婉。会话者应根据所处的环境，交际双方关系疏密和自己的意图信息选择语用策略：侧重传递信息就降低信息灰度;要礼貌、间接表达意图就增加信息灰度。

5.顾曰国的汉语礼貌原则。

顾曰国认为，汉语言文化有以下四个方面的特征：尊重、谦逊、态度热情、文雅、基于这四个特征，他仿效Leech提出了汉语的五个礼貌原则。1）

贬己尊人准则。

贬己尊人准则是最富有中国文化特色的礼貌现象。贬己尊人准则即指谓自己或与自己有关的事物时要“贬”，要“谦”；指谓听者或者与听者有关的事物时要“抬”，要“尊”。2）

成为准则。

称呼准则即用适切的称呼语主动跟对方打招呼。称呼语里记录了“上下有义，贵贱有分，长幼有等。”称呼语代表了人与人之间的一种社会关系。3）

文雅准则

文雅准则即选用雅言，禁用秽语；多用委婉，少用直言，显示说话人有教养。4）

求同准则

求同准则即说话人和听话人在诸多方面力求和谐一致，尽量满足对方的欲望。当不得不批评别人或发表不同意见时，人们实施求同准则的策略往往是指先指出并肯定双方共同点，给对方留个脸面，然后才说出不同点。5）

德、言、行准则。德、言、行准则指在行为动机上，尽量减少他人付出的代价，尽量增大对他人的移除。在言辞上，尽量夸大别人给自己的益处，尽量说小自己付出的代价。6.结语。

礼貌作为一种社会现象，无论哪个语言集团中都是普遍存在的，但在不同的社会文化条件下礼貌原则应该是存在区别的，而非一概而论。笔者认为礼貌原则应该和其他诸如合作原则，灰色系统理论进行结合，几个理论从不同角度进行互相修补和参照，从而更好地服务于语言运用，

第二篇：教育改革何处去？

教育改革何处去？ 来源：南风窗日期：2010-09-27浏览：5717

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中国教育，已经成为一个相当沉重的话题。“再穷不能穷教育，再苦不能苦孩子”，既是决策者经常的口头禅，也是老百姓的生活信条。当新一轮教育改革终于掀开大幕的时候，人们发现：对于教育，最让人沉痛的还不是为孩子争夺好学位时的无奈，学历贬值下教育作为底层上升途径功能的弱化，而是对于教育的信心的流失和动摇。当一个国家的民众对于后代的教育前景产生深刻动摇的时候，无疑是可怕和危险的。

为什么温家宝总理在全国“两会”上说的“让所有孩子都能上好学”引起代表们长时间的掌声？人们不是为了政府增加真金白银而兴高采烈，而是这句话传达的价值观念引起了强烈共鸣：教育天然应该是公正的，它要给每一个人带去梦想。如果说公平正义比太阳还有光辉，那么最耀眼的光辉来自教育。一个在教育领域不能实现公平公正的国家，其实也就称不上一个公平公正的国家。一旦教育领域的不公平不公正的裂痕不能得到弥合，一个国家那些最美好的价值观念的口号也将变得漏洞百出。

邓小平曾说：“10年改革的最大失误是教育。”离他说这句话20余年过去了，“失误”以另外的形式、变幻着另外的后果仍在持续发生着，而其严重程度绝不小于邓小平当年的担忧。从党和政府的角度说，以教育改革来矫正这些“失误”，其成败不仅事关民众对于国家和民族未来的信心，也事关国家战略调整的基石是否牢固。

实现公平是最好的恢复信心的药剂。中国教育能否突围成功，教育公平能否实现也是个试金石。正如胡锦涛总书记说的那样，进一步消除制约教育发展和创新的体制机制障碍。如此，教育的优先发展地位就不会仅仅是嘴上说说，教育的“战略地位”也就不会变成是“略占地位”，公正也就不会变成“对一部分人的公正是对其他人的不公正”。

第三篇：礼貌原则在口译中的应用

Introduction

Along with the trend of economic globalization and cultural diversification, communication among people from different countries and different cultures is more frequent and important.Interpreters are enjoying a constantly improved position in international communication, acting as the bridge which make people of different languages and backgrounds connected.Gradually, more elements should be considered in interpretation, especially keeping the communications smooth by using polite expression.In this case, the study of application of politeness communicative principle in interpretation will bring enlightenment to the future work.As we all know, interpretation is a kind of hard and complex job.Politeness communicative principle is used to research communicative conversation, so it also can be applied into interpretation which can be seen as a special conversation.However, interpretation is a study with a short history, which needs more help from other fields.Nowadays, the study of interpretation is concentrated on language training, interpreting skills, exams and so on.Few people pay attention to the application of politeness communicative principle in interpretation.Thus, politeness communicative principle in interpretation is so important and deserves more attention.Except for the introduction and conclusion, this thesis is composed of three parts.Part one gives a view of related theories;Part two is main part of the paper, which includes preconditions for using politeness communicative principle and feasibility of the adoption of politeness communicative principle;Part three is the enlightenment to interpretation after the research, including strategies for applying politeness 1

communicative principle in interpretation.2

1.Literature review of interpretation and politeness communicative principle In 1978, English scholars Brown & Levinson wrote an article “Universals in Language Usage: Politeness Phenomena”.Soon after that, Leech delivered his six criteria of politeness in 1983.Since then, there are some researches about the two fields of politeness communicative principle and interpretation respectively.1.1 General review of interpretation In order to identify the relationship between interpretation and politeness communicative principle, it is necessary to review related interpretation theory at home and abroad.1.1.1 Definition of interpretation Interpretation is a form of translation, converting one language to anther so that the target language could convey the intended message in source language.Interpretation essentially is “an oral translation of oral discourse”(Gile, 1995: 1)and “ an extempore oral reproduction, in one language of what is said in another language ”(Zhong, 1999: 1).Interpretation is a form of translation in which a first and final rendition in another language is produced on the basis of a one-time presentation of an utterance in a source language(Pochhacker 2004: 11).Compared to translation which is used when the immediate result of the work is a written text, interpretation has its outstanding characteristics as being used when the immediate result is a speech reproduced orally in a language other than that spoken by the original speaker.That is to say, interpretation is a communicative process which faithfully and orally transfer the information from one language to another.3

1.1.2 Type and development of interpretation Interpretation consists of consecutive interpretation, simultaneous interpretation and whispering interpretation, among which consecutive interpretation is the most popular and widely used.In consecutive interpretation, the interpreter listens to a speech segment and then delivers the whole segment in the target language.While in simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter conveys the meaning to the listeners while listening.In whispering interpretation, the interpreter is for speeches with one to two foreign listeners or as accompanying interpreter for your international guests outside the actual event programme.Lacking of historical record makes it difficult to find the exact date when interpretation got into shape.And interpretation came into being and developed gradually when people speaking different languages started to communicate with each other.In the past, there were middlemen, who helped people speaking different languages communicate with each other.They were usually immigrants who knew two or more languages and also called dragoman, but these people were not trained professionally.When people speaking different languages started to communicate with each other more frequently, quick and effective interpretation was in urgent.Interpreter becomes an international profession in the First World War.It is in the Paris Peace Conference interpreters who have been trained professionally to meet the requirements of the conference.After that, interpretation has become a popular profession in the world.4

1.2 An overview of politeness communicative principle theories Politeness as a social phenomenon can be observed in all languages and cultures, and it has long been an important object of study in linguistics.As a common social phenomenon, politeness is not only an universal virtue but also a popular way to realize effective communication.1.2.1 A general view of politeness communicative principle Politeness is an universal phenomenon in society.However, different linguists and scholars give different explanations of politeness.In western countries, Leech says that there exists a set of maxims that guide and constrain the conversation between people, he suggests that cooperative principle should be expanded because Gricean’s cooperative principle can not sufficiently explain why people so often convey meaning indirectly.It is for this reason that politeness principle can be seen not just as another principle to be added to cooperative principle, but as its necessary complement.Leech introduces the politeness principle which runs as follows: Minimize the expression of impolite beliefs, Maximize the expression of polite belief.1.2.2 Politeness theories at home and abroad

Many scholars have made great contribution to the study of politeness theories.Among them, Leech and Gu Yueguo play a significant role, which serves as the foundation of the politeness research for other scholars.Politeness communicative principle is proposed to explain how politeness operates in conversational exchange, which has a series of maxims.Leech defines politeness as forms of behavior that establish and maintain comity.That is the ability of participants in a social interaction 5

to engage in interaction in an atmosphere of relative harmony.Leech specifies degree of politeness principle which are the means required in a certain situation.(1)The Tact Maxim Minimize the expression of beliefs which imply cost to other, maximize the expression of beliefs which imply benefit to other.(2)The Approbation Maxim Minimize the expression of beliefs which express dispraise of other;Maximize the expression of beliefs which express approval of other.(3)The Generosity Maxim

Minimize the expression of benefit to itself;Maximize the expression of cost to itself.(4)The Modesty Maxim

Minimize the expression of praise of self;Maximize the expression of dispraise of self.(5)The Agreement Maxim

Minimize the expression of disagreement between self and other;Maximize the expression of agreement between self and other.(Leech, 1999:20-21)While in China, the real study of politeness principle only began in the 1980s when pragmatics was introduced into China.The most influential figure in this area is Gu Yueguo.He puts forward his own set of politeness maxims in two thesis “Politeness Pragmatics and Culture” and “Politeness phenomena in modern China”.His theory has distinctive characteristics of Chinese culture.He proposed four basic 6

notions: respectfulness, modesty, attitudinal warmth and refinement.According to Gu, politeness principle includes five maxims:“Self-denigration and Respecting Maxim, Addressing Maxim, Elegancy Maxim, Conforming Maxim, Virtue, Words and Behavior Maxim.”(Gu, 2005: 10)

1.3 The relationship between politeness communicative principle and interpretation

Interpretation is understood as the mental process and communicative act of reproducing orally in a target language what a speaker is expressing in a source language.(Zhong, 1999: 1)

From the above explanation, it is easy to find that interpretation is a kind of special conversation.The success of this conversation needs a media of interpreter.During interpretation, interpreters need to cooperate both with the speakers and the listeners, and they also need to control the atmosphere of this conversation and keep the conversation polite.Besides, politeness communicative principle is used to research communicative conversation, so it can be applied into interpretation.So far, there have been some studies related to relationship between politeness communicative principle and interpretation, especially in recent years.For instance, Guo Yingzhen has published the issue of “Politeness Principle and Interpreting” by analyzing politeness principle and nine types of politeness in interpretation.She says, “ Based on the politeness principle and the experience of the author’s practice during past years, the honorific expressions in the process of interpreting can be divided into and applied to in nine different situations, namely, greetings, request, inquiry, 7

complaint and regret, advice, apology, imperative, and agreement”(Guo, 2004: 15).She tries to encourage readers to use honorific expressions in interpretation so that his or her own interpreting ability could be reflected.Wang Xiaowen discusses the complementarily and contradiction between cooperative principle and politeness principle, she mentions about the importance of politeness communicative principle in interpretation, “As two important theories in the field of pragmatics, Grice’s cooperative principle and Leech’s politeness principle both have great insights on interpreting with latter complimentary to the former.The approbation of the two principles to interpreting can effectively promote the successful cooperation between the two parties of communication.”(Wang, 2006: 18)1.4 Previous studies on interpreter’s subjectivity

With the increasing attention paid on the role of interpreters, the subjectivity of which arouse interest of scholars.Qiu Jixin observes the translator’s subjectivity and its restrictions by introducing thought of foreign scholars and analysis of translation.He says, “As a subject, translators can carry out their subjectivity during the translating process.Yet, the subjectivity must be restricted by certain factors.The two are combined closely with each other.”(Qiu, 2004: 12)Later, Hon Linping and Jiang Siping write complete conclusion on the study of the issue, on the subjectivity studies over the past ten years.They talk about the root, developing stages, some limitations and problems of all the previous researches.In general, just as what they state in the review,“the concept of interpreter’s subjectivity has gained more and more attention in China’s translation 8

study over the last decades.Analyzing the studies of the translator’s subjectivity in China from 1996 to 2005, the scholars explore the positive roles and limitations that the new trend could play in translation, the authors maintain that the translator’s turn will prevail in the 21 century.”(Hon & Jiang, 2006)These people do some research on the interpreter’s subjectivity and leave some evidence for others.Lv Binghua, from the perspective of subjectivity, proposed three norms, self-restriction on expressions and arrangement of message.It is a generalization of the forms of interpreter’s subjectivity from a rather macro perspective.Few scholars concern about the subjectivity of interpreters although the issue of interpreter’s subjectivity has been studied for years.That’s the greatest regret in the study of the issue.2.Feasibility and strategies for interpreters to apply politeness communicative principle in interpreting

From the above analysis of the research conducted by many linguists and interpretation theorists, it is easy to find that politeness communicative principle plays an important role in interpretation.No matter whether politeness communicative principle in western countries or in China, the essence is similar only with different emphasis.This chapter, which is based on the analysis of politeness communicative principle, explains the feasibility for interpreters and explores the instructive function of the politeness communicative principle in interpretation.2.1 Possible steps to deal with subjectivity

When politeness communicative principle is used in interpretation, at least two 9

things should be noticed.Firstly, it is possible to deal with subjectivity when interpret.Secondly, it is possible to apply politeness communicative principle in interpretation.Actually the process of interpreting can be divided into two parts: preparation before real interpretation and the actual interpretation process.“Translation procedure involves far more than step-by-step procedures for producing a translation from a source text.”(Nida, 2004: 131)In the following part, the author will discuss when and how interpreters can manipulate with subjectivity.2.1.1 Preparation before interpreting

It is well-known that enough preparation work is a key factor of a successful interpretation.Many things can be done before interpretation and will be later used.Generally speaking, prepared knowledge includes the glossary items, background knowledge of a certain field, understanding of the speaker’s culture and so on.In order to specify the above statement and make it clear and easy to be understood, the author sets an example in the following part.For example, There is going to be an English speaker talking about technology in clone.Preparation work will be done differently.Interpreter A may know well about clone, he masters all the background information and latest researches in the field.But he has no idea about the speaker except that the speaker is from England.In this situation, interpreter A may prepare in following steps.Firstly, since he knows well about the issue, the preparation of background knowledge may be very simple.Secondly, since the speaker comes from England, which needs to know more 10

about clone in England.Therefore, A should review the clone in England.Thirdly, given that A knows nothing about the speaker, he should seek a way to get familiar with culture and courtesy in England.Last but not least, A should know more about the situation whether in a conference or casual dialogue.Imagine another quite different situation: If interpreter B knows the English speaker very well.However, he knows little about clone, let alone clone in England.In this case, B would seek for different methods to deal with, which is quite different from A.Instead of paying much attention to the background of the speaker, B has to spend much time learning about clone, especially in England.Therefore, he had better read some scientific books and surf the Internet to gain more information about clone.Above all, it is easy to find that different interpreters choose different ways to prepare based on their own conditions though given the same situation.That leads to the possibility of choosing for interpreters in this process.2.1.2 Understanding of original speech Understanding of Original Speech is a vital process during the interpretation.If one can’t grasp the original meaning, he may mislead the intention of the speaker, even worse, spoil the whole conversation.Basil Hatim and Ian Mason once wrote in their book Discourse and the Translator, “The less evaluative the text is, the less need there will be for its structure to be modified;Conversely, the more culture-bound a text is, the more scope there may be for modification.The less culture-bound a text is, the less need there will be for its structure to be modified;Conversely, the more culture-bound a text is, the more 11

space there may be for modification.”(Hatim & Mason,1999: 3)In China, Qi Weiyan stated in her paper, “Translator’s understandings and opinions are always influenced by times, nation, language, history, custom, culture and so on.Thus, the subjectivity of translators is strongly needed because of the differences in these factors in source text, the disparity between source and target language, and the strong demonstration of times, national feature and culture capital in the source text”.(Qi, 2003)In the following, the author would show that interpreters may have different understandings towards the same original sentence.For example, It’s my great honor to be invited as your friend.Interpreter1: 作为朋友收到邀请，我十分荣幸。Interpreter2: 我十分荣幸以朋友的身份收到邀请。

In this case, the emphasis of the interpreter is different.Interpreter 1 strengthens the meaning of “great honor to be invited” with thanks.While interpreter 2 highlights the words “as your friend” to focus on the true friendship.Therefore, the hidden meaning of the sentence is “The friendship between us is precious to me and I really appreciate it”.Both of the understandings are right if the speaker expresses the sentence without the paragraph.Still, differences between two interpreters don’t influence the quality of interpretation.It can be concluded from the above example that one sentence may lead to different understandings and the interpreters can choose their own understanding according to the atmosphere of situation, the context or the relevant information.This clearly proves that interpreters are able to manipulate during the understanding 12

process and sometimes the subjective choosing may even be of great significance.2.1.3 Production of the interpreted version

As Qi Weiyan stated in her paper, “Translator’s subjectivity can be reflected not only from the comprehension of the source language, but also from the choosing ways of expressions.If we put it in another way, production of the translators gradually form their own translation styles, characteristics and features.There is a close relation between them.In a certain period and under certain historical and cultural background, translators form their own thoughts and senses of values, tastes and interests, as well as translation abilities, which are shown in his translation version.”(Qi, 2003)From the translation theory above, it is aware that translator’s subjectivity is what she talks about.It is the same with interpreters,too.Being an excellent interpreter requires abundant interpreting experiences, careful observation and daily practices.The author will give an example to illustrate this point.For example, Shenzhen today is quite different from what she looked like twenty years ago.Version1: 今日的深圳不同于20年前的深圳。

Version2: 今日的深圳比20年前不可同日而语。

When you talk about Shenzhen’s development and her achievement with a foreigner, such a sentence can be seen very often.In a real interpreting case, it is common that both of the translation versions are acceptable, with no mistake or misunderstanding between communicative parties.However, the two versions have obvious difference.Version 2 gives a more brief idea of difference in Shenzhen which 13

strikes the speaker most.While version 1 is close to literal meaning of the original sentence.The two versions have difference in ways of expression and the author believes that it can reflect the interpreter’s characteristics in some degree.Although the original sentence is a kind of praise of Shenzhen’s great development, the sentence itself does not show that Shenzhen becomes stronger or prosperous.It can be predicted that in terms of characteristics, version 2 is more direct than version 1 since he or she wishes to express the intended meaning in an obvious way.2.2 Feasibility of the adoption of politeness communicative principle in interpretation Since it has been proved that politeness communicative principle is one of the principles that should be adopted in our daily conversation.Adopting politeness communicative principle in interpretation will help create harmonious atmosphere and enable the exchange of words and thoughts to be smooth and successful.As we all know, interpretation is a kind of exchanging and talking since two communicative parties cannot communicate directly because of language and culture differences.Thus, an interpreter is needed to exchange words between the two communicative parties, which is a very important job in such kind of indirect interaction.During interpreting, a sense of being polite is badly needed.In this part, the author will talk about the application of politeness communicative principle and set examples to prove the feasibility to interpretation.The process of application of politeness communicative principle can be divided into three different forms, namely choosing of words, choosing of sentences and choosing 14

ways of expressions.2.2.1 Choosing of words Interpreters may have different words that can be used during interpretation, while they have possibility to choose proper words from them.Therefore, interpreters can find the most polite words under the direction of politeness communicative principle.First of all, some words that can help the interpreters are discussed.Firstly, application of model verbs in politeness communicative principle will be discussed.When we choose proper language form to express politely, some appropriate model verbs can make the sentence like an euphemism.In our conversations or dialogues, these model verbs are easy to find here and there, such as “should, shall, would, could”.In order to express the meaning more clearly, the author will set two examples in the following.When we put the model verb “could” ahead in a question sentence, it is a euphemistic expression.For example, “could you tell me about the story?” The word “would” can be used in a euphemistic expression, especially in the request and suggested sentence.For instance,“I would be a shame to disturb your dialogue.” “would you like to pass the book to me ?”and “wouldn’t it be better to stop it right now?” All the sentences above are more polite than those do not use model verb.Secondly, tense of verb deserves our attention.In a sentence, past tense is another way to express request politely, while past continuous tense is more polite than past tense.For instance,“Sorry, I did it again”.This sentence means this is not the first time he made mistake, and the intended meaning of which is he or she really feels 15

regrettable about what he or she does.From above, it can be found that past tense can also express apologize.Thirdly, some words expressing possibility could also express politeness.when we talk something about suggestion, advice and criticism, we could use “maybe” “perhaps” and “possible”.”Possibly” mainly used in a request sentence, if it is used together with model verbs “can” and “could”, it would be more polite.When we give an invitation, suggestion, requirement and criticism, we can use the word “wonder”, because it is also a euphemism.Another example, the word “quite” can be used in the negative sentence to express politeness:“That’s not quite what I said, you know.” Some examples related to the three pairs of maxims will be discussed next.2.2.1.1 Tact maxim and generosity maxim

From the brief introduction of maxim before, it is easy to know that these two maxims are intended to maxim of benefit to others and cost to oneself.The typical case is as followed.“This is a brief introduction brochure of our school”

Version1: 这是我校的宣传册。

Version2: 这是美国某大学的宣传册。

According to Tack and Generosity Maxim, it is polite to maximize the listener’s benefit even cost the speaker more.In this situation, since the interpreter is the direct speaker to the Chinese students attending an exhibition, the interpreter has to interpret the complete meaning while maximize benefit for the listener.Based on the given situation, version2 is more proper than version1, not only for 16

sake of better advertisement of the school, but also help the listener leave a deep impression of this school, which is different from other schools they heard before.From this point of view, the choosing of version “美国某大学” rather than “我校” realizes the minimization of other’s cost.2.2.1.2 Approbation maxim and modesty maxim

These two maxims demand maximization of praise of others and of dispraise to oneself.The following is an example:

“我们产品的质量比你方更好。”

Version1: Our product’s quality is better than yours.Version2: It seems that our product’s quality is better than yours.In this case, version2 doesn’t maximize praise of listeners and dispraise of him or her.The speaker states the meaning of “better than you”, which is going to cause unhappy feelings to the listeners.2.2.1.3 Agreement maxim and sympathy maxim Agreement Maxim and Sympathy Maxim demand maximization of agreement between oneself and others.An example is as followed:

你同意我的想法吗？

Not really.Version1: Do you agree with me?

我不同意。

Version2: Do you agree with me?

我们的想法可能有些出入。

This is a kind of “agree-or-not” sentence.Agreement should be given based on the Agreement and Sympathy Maxim.Therefore, when the interpreter chooses the expression “有些出入” instead of “不同意”.The atmosphere is more polite and harmonious.2.2.2 Choosing of sentences

Interpreters may have different sentences that come into mind during interpretation, while they have possibility to choose the most suitable one from them.As a result, interpreters can find the most polite one under the direction of politeness communicative principle.2.2.2.1 Tack maxim and generosity maxim Two conclusions can be drawn from these maxims.Firstly, offering is more polite than request in an imperative sentence.Secondly, politeness communicative principle in language can be classified into various degrees because more indirect expressions give listeners more freedom to choose what they want.If a sentence is delivered in a more indirect way, it would be more polite.Example1, Answer the phone.I want you to answer the phone.Will you answer the phone?

Can you answer the phone?

Would you mind answering the phone?

Could you possibly answer the phone?

Example 2, Call a taxi for me.18

I want you to call a taxi for me.Will you call a taxi for me?

Would you mind calling a taxi for me? In each example, the last one is the most polite because it gives the listener more opportunity to refuse.It is successful to minimize the cost to others and maximize benefit to others.More examples can be found at the beginning of a press conference.In order to keep the meeting going quietly, the host would say to the reporter just as “请各位与会人员关闭手机”.Under this circumstance, interpreters have these choices:“Turn off the cell phone.” “Can you turn off the cell phone?” or “Can I probably ask you to turn off the cell phone?”.Among them, the degree of being polite is deeper and deeper, then the last one is the most polite.In order to show politeness, interpreters usually express ideas in a mild and roundabout way.For example, when disagreeing with somebody, one would say,“I don’t think you are right” rather than“you are wrong”.Another example“You don’t seem to understand” instead of “You don’t know” so directly.2.2.2.2 Approbation maxim and modesty maxim

These two maxims demand maximization of praise of others and of dispraise to oneself.They contain two aspects and the first is “negative praise” which means saying something good to somebody instead of criticizing others.An example is followed,“Do you like my skirt?” “Well, yes.But it’s not my favorite.” Although B does not like A’s skirt, he expresses his feelings in a polite way.The second type is “exaggerated praise”, which is common in interpretation from Chinese to English

because English speakers like to exaggerate their feelings, while Chinese are more implicit in comparison.Here is an example: after a party, guests coming from China say to the host,“谢谢你的邀请，我们度过了一个愉快的夜晚。” Interpreter can express like this,“Thank you so much for inviting us, we had a wonderful night”.In this version “so much” is an exaggerated word.Another example is, when praising others, one usually addresses in this way, ”What a beautiful house!” or “What a cute boy”.Another example,“你觉得我们有机会合作这个项目么？”

Hopefully, let’s wait and see.Version1: Is there any possibility for us to cooperate with each other on the project?

希望可以，让我们边走边看。

Version2: Is there any possibility for us to cooperate with each other on this project?

希望能有这个合作机会，让我们边走边看。

Based on Approbation and Modesty Maxim, it is polite for the interpreter to maximize praise of the Chinese party.The Chinese party asks the question about the cooperation possibility in this situation.For some reasons, Without exact comment on the possibility, the foreigner gives an ambiguous answer to the question.Thus, the second version is recommended.2.2.2.3 Agreement maxim and sympathy maxim

These two maxims demand maximization of agreement between oneself and 20

others.English speakers usually express disagreement in this way:“sorry”or“Excuse me”.For instance,A says,“I like these pictures, they are beautiful”.Then B says “Well, I don’t have any eye for beauty, I’m afraid”.From this example, it is easy to see that although B does not agree with A, he does not express that in a direct way, which not only decreases the conflict between them, but also increases the accordance with the speaker.That is to say, in order to make the listener happier, good details should be talked.For instance,“That was the great Oscar for John” and “That was the great news about John”.The first sentence brings more happiness to the listener.On the contrary, when we talk about some sad news, try to say some vague words instead of details.In western culture, the expression of “death” is a typical one.For example,“be asleep in the arms of God”“be taken to paradise and go to heaven”.Another example,“I was sorry to hear about your husband” is more polite than “I was sorry to hear about your husband’s death”.2.2.3 Choosing of expressions

Choosing of expressions means that during interpreting, an interpreter is likely to choose different ways to express the idea.Among these choices, he or she would find the most polite one according to politeness communicative principle, which includes the changing of sentence structure or custom of expression in different languages.The author would illustrate the point in following aspects.2.2.3.1 Tack maxim and generosity maxim

Here is an example to show the expression choices under the direction of these two maxims.21

你看过那份计划了吗？

真不好意思，我昨天去看父母了。

Version1: Sorry, I went to visit my parents yesterday.Version2: Sorry, I haven’t seen it though, since I went to visit my parents yesterday.In this situation, the hidden meaning of Chinese speaker is that he hasn’t looked into the proposal yet.According to Chinese culture, the reason is given at first.However, person asks the question in order to know whether the proposal is seen though or not.Thus, in order to show respect to the leader, he or she had better choose the latter one to give the direct answer first and if time permits, giving reasons in a simple way.In this way, the modest attitude of speaker can be clearly reflected and thus gaining opinion of Chinese audience.2.2.3.2 Approbation maxim and modesty maxim Here is an example to show the expression choices under the direction of these two maxims.That is all my speech, If you have any question concerning my speech, welcome.Version1: 我的演讲完毕，有问题可以问我。

Version2: 我的演讲完毕，如有问题，欢迎随时提问。

The original sentence is a traditional English way of expression with no offence.However, the translated version1 may seem a bit rude to the audience in China.Thus, although violating the literal meaning of the original words, interpreters maybe choose the latter one to show politeness and create a harmonious atmosphere.22

2.2.3.3 Agreement maxim and sympathy maxim

Under the direction of these two maxims, the author will list an example:

Do you agree with our arrangement?

Yes, the transportation and accommodation are great.Version1: 是的，交通和住宿都不错。

Version2: 安排的很好，尤其是住宿和交通。

In order to be polite, version2 chooses the expression “安排的很好”，which is not heightened in the original words.The change of expression adds the degree of agreement and sounds more agreeable than just saying“是的”.Therefore, the listener will be glad to your interpretation.3 Strategies for applying politeness communicative principle in interpretation

Since a great many researches have been done on the strategies whenever concerning politeness or subjectivity, the author is going to mention three of them simply.There are substitution when the speaker does not mention, treason when the speaker does mention but not polite to the audience and omission to name just a few.3.1 Substitution Interpretation needs substitution sometimes.Since it has already been proved that interpreter is able to cope with subjectivity, substitution cannot be avoided because of different languages, backgrounds, styles and so on.When comes to politeness communicative principle, substitution can be utilized in following: The key point of Tack and Generosity maxims is to reduce the cost of others.In some cases, people are not willing to talk about death, disease, body part and so on.23

Instead, they would use indirect words replacing them.For instance, “big C” stands for “cancer” “mentally handicapped” replaces “retarded”, “psychiatric hospital” rather than “mental hospital”.Concerning about unemployment, they would use the words: “unwaged, between jobs”.It’s good for one to try hard to agree with others,if not that matters, and it is the key issue of Agreement and Sympathy maxims.When one agrees with the other but he or she omits the words like “yes” or “sure” and directly continue the topic.On such occasions, it is greater if the interpreter say like “of course” or “definitely” to emphasize the agreement.Substitution can be found quite often in opening and end of speeches, informal lectures and interviews, which allows to establish harmonious atmosphere without influencing the content or final result.3.2 Treason In some occasions, if we translate the sentences literary, it would cause misunderstanding due to different cultural backgrounds.As bridge of communication, it is interpreter’s responsibility to promote better interactions, even sometimes not being loyalty to the original words.In order to maximize praise of others and minimize praise to oneself, interpreters may sometimes behave modest on behalf of the speaker.Such kind of situation can be found when communicative parties come from different cultural backgrounds.For instance, the Westerners tend to be direct while Chinese are used to behave modest.It is the guest speaker’s or sometimes interpreter’s responsibility to use words or concept of the host speakers and that can also be regarded as a kind of agreement to 24

the host party and its custom for sake of offering more agreement to others.Situations exist when parties hold different opinions toward one issue or when slip of tongue occurs.Interpreters should be pay attention to this strategy, be loyalty to the original words and pass on the meaning to the listeners.3.3 Omission Facing with difficulties in interpretation, omission is one of the strategies most often applied.Omission concludes deletion of words, phrases, sentences or even a paragraph.Here is an example: Please turn to page 20, maybe 22.let me see, yes, 25.Version1:请翻到书的20页，也许是22页，让我看看，第25页。

Version2:请翻到书的第25页。

It costs a lot for the audience to hear page 20, 22and 25 getting themselves busy in turning to pages that are not certain.Thus, it is wise and polite for the interpreter to slip to the final page which is quite certain, or else it will cause a confusing situation.However, this strategy is not proper in all conditions.When comes to important content, no random omission is allowed.Conclusion

Through this paper, the author draws the conclusion that it is very important and feasible to use politeness communicative principle in interpretation.Therefore, when interpreters understand preconditions of the principle and adopt related interpretation strategies, the interpreted version would be better.Since interpreters are already aware of the importance to be polite and feasibility to subjectivity.Besides, some possible ways to deal with subjectivity, interpretation strategies under the direction of politeness communicative principle are are listed in the paper.It is conductive to the improvement of the quality of interpretation and the development of interpreters themselves.Since this paper is done with the aid of many reference books and some papers, there may exist weakness and limitations during the process.Besides, there are causes that actually lead to these limitations: Firstly, as a college student, it is unlikely for the author to get in touch with interpreters in everyday life;Secondly, not doing or observing enough interpreting practice, it is impossible for the author to collect a large number of materials and cover all the areas.Finally, the author has little experience in interpretation, which causes the big trouble to perfect the paper.As a result, based on the materials available and current condition, the author tries best to make the paper reliable.The author hopes that the future researches can spare more efforts in the following aspects.Firstly, researches may collect as much materials as they can through all possible channels in future.If time permits, such kind of collection may 26

produce a more reliable research than this one.Secondly, there is no space and time left for strategies and suggestions.The author just lists three of them to name just a few.It is the hope of the author that future researcher can lay more emphasis on the strategy part to make this research more complete and systematic.Bibliography Brown.P &Levinson, S.Universals in Language Usage [J].Shanghai: Shanghai

Foreign Language Education Press, 1978.Gile, D.An Oral Translation of Oral Discourse [M].New York: Oxford University

Press, 1995.Grice, H.P.Logic and Conversation [J].New York: Academic Press, 1975.Hatim, B.&Mason, I.Discourse and Translator [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign

Language Education Press, 2001.Nida, E.A.Language, Culture and Translating [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign

Language Education Press, 2004.Pochhacker.F.Introducing Interpreting Studies [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign

Language Education Press, 2004.Zhong Shukong.A Practical Handbook of Interpretation [M].Beijing: Beijing

External Translation Press, 2001.顾曰国.跨文化交际 [M].北京: 外语教学与研究出版社, 2005.郭英珍.语用中的礼貌原则与口译的敬体形式 [J].华北水利水电学报, 2004(2).侯林平, 姜泗平.我国近十年来译者主体性研究的回顾与反思 [J].山东科技大

学学报, 2006(3).利奇.语义学 [M].上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 1996.吕炳华.译者主体性的体现.[J] 山东外语外贸大学学报, 2005(1).戚伟燕.译者主体性的体现和强弱.[J] 杭州电子工业学院学报.2004(1).裘姬新.译者主体性及其制约因素 [J].河南科技大学学报, 2004(1).28

王晓雯.合作、礼貌原则与口译 [J].安徽冶金科技职业学院学报.2006(2).29

第四篇：中国土地改革何处去

中国土地改革何处去

我国农村在20多年前实行的家庭承包经营制大大解放了农民的生产力，对扭转我国粮食供应严重紧张的局面做出了关键性的贡献。但是，随着中国社会的继续前进，这个体制的弊端也开始逐渐表露出来。

其一，家庭承包制的实行导致农田耕地急剧减少，国家和农民都经受着失地之痛。由于公权力机关往往不珍惜土地，在公共事务中

过度使用土地；而资本更是大力圈占土地；同时，农民用盖房子、扩大宅基地等意图保住对土地的占有权。这样一来，中国本来就不多的土地在各种形式的占用中日益减少。

其二，家庭承包制也不能激励农民对农业生产实行长期投入。尽管中央政府三令五申不准随意改变土地承包合同，但“三年一小调、五年一大调”的现象仍很普遍。

其三，家庭承包制不仅制约着中国的城市化进程，也制约着农业经济效率的提高。一方面，农民不能用自己的土地财产权换取进入城市的生存手段。另一方面，由于土地的规模经营往往要靠强制，导致依靠农民间的土地财产权转让来形成土地规模经营的交易成本很高。

够了！单这几条理由，也足以让我们必须考虑改革农村土地制。

面对这样的困境，“让农民退回到人民公社时代”的主张也就堂而皇之地摆到了桌面上。笔者丝毫不担心决策者会采纳这种主张，这种主张只不过是某些人制造噱头、玩弄标新立异的学术游戏而已。

也有人似乎理由很充分地来维护家庭承包制，因为“土地是农民的生活保障手段，是万万动不得”。

笔者不敢赞成这种貌似同情农民，实则束缚农民的主张。如果一个国家要靠平均主义分配土地的方法来保障农民利益的话，那意味着这个国家将永无现代化到来之日：人均两亩地的保障，我们不用细算账也该知道它的意义有多大。

土地改革的积极想法是给予农民有保障的土地财产权，使农民的土地承包权含有使用权、收益权、处置权、出售权和抵押权等一系列权利。

然而，“两亩地保障”的坚持者总在说，这样的积极改革会导致一些农民丧失土地、流离失所、生活悲惨。笔者以为这种担忧其实是一叶障目、不见泰山。

首先，现行的制度并不能保障农民的土地使用权，如果给予农民充分的土地财产权，反倒可以使农民不容易丧失土地。第二，新的积极的改革办法固然会使一批又一批农民离开土地，但这种淘汰是“正淘汰”，留下的是能干的农民。而现行制度的淘汰是“逆淘汰”，留下的农民往往是不能干的农民。第三，中国目前正在进行最快的资本积累，如果政策得当，还会发生最快的城市化。那些在“正淘汰”中出局的农民会被吸纳在城市化进程中，即使没有能力就业的也会被纳入城市社会保障系统。第四，国际经验告诉我们，没有哪个国家是靠“两亩地保障”来支撑现代化的。日本曾经在类似的担忧下设计过类似的“两亩地保障”政策，但很快发现工业扩张使得这种担忧大可不必。于是，日本在20世纪60年代初就调整了政策，鼓励土地的集约化经营。第五，现代国家也能够控制土地的集约化过程和规模，使其适应城市化对农村劳动力的吸收速度。

我国土地制度的改革需要大智慧，而不是墨守成规。如果我们真正同情农民，就不要去束缚他们，而应该把他们推入到现代化主流当中去。

第五篇：农村信用社向何处去

农村信用社向何处去

发布时间：2009年08月13日 18:17

来源：《求是》期号：2005.10作者：乌东峰 王国平

有着农村血液之称的农村信用合作社，在我国已存续半个多世纪，为农业和农村发展提供了巨大金融支持。但随着社会主义市场经济的发展，农信社原有的管理体制已不适应农业发展的需要，筹资能力差、成本高、服务手段落后、资金运用效率低等问题日益突出。因此，从农村实际和农民需求出发，按照有利于改善农村金融服务的原则，加快改革和创新农村金融体制，已成为当务之急。

中国农信社怎样走来

建国初期，党和国家在着手整顿财经纪律的同时，决定在农村建立信用合作组织，以支持农村经济的发展。中国农村信用合作社建立以来，大体经历了四个重要的发展阶段：

１９４９—１９５９年，大规模组建和迅速发展时期。１９５１年５月，中国人民银行总行召开了第一次全国农村金融工作会议，决定大力发展农村信用社。农信社资本金由农民入股，干部由社员选举，通过信贷活动为社员的生产生活服务。在这个时期，由于政策得当，农信社与农户和农业生产合作社联系紧密，对农业生产和农民生活改善起了较大的支持作用，获得了迅速发展。到１９５７年底，全国共建立农信社８８３６８个。

１９５９—１９７９年，下放基层的缓慢发展时期。这个时期农信社曾先后下放给人民公社、生产大队管理，后来又交给社员管理。由于制度安排上的缺陷，下放形成了基层干部对信用合作社的控制，农信社基本成为基层社队的金融工具，对农业生产的整体性支持作用受到限制，因而发展十分缓慢。

１９７９—１９９６年，农业银行管理时期。１９８４年，国务院批转了中国农业银行《关于改革信用社管理体制的报告》，提出把农信社办成群众性的合作金融组织，并在农业银行的领导和监督下开展存贷业务。这段时期，农信社虽然成立了县级联社，却变成了农业银行的基层机构。由于监督约束机制不健全，农信社贷款大量投放乡镇企业，增大了潜在的经营风险。

１９９６年至今，中国人民银行托管时期。近年来，在中国人民银行的托管下，农信社通过加快改革和加强制度建设，取得了显著成效。主要表现在：一是贷款投向发生了重大调整，农业贷款比重明显提高；二是贷款方式有了改进，农户贷款面明显扩大；三是经营机制有了初步转变，内部管理逐渐规范。

中国农信社向何处去

由于历史包袱沉重等诸多原因，农信社目前仍面临着发展危机。在社会主义市场经济条件下，中国农信社到底向何处去？

早在２０００年初，国家就在江苏省进行农信社改革试点。从近年来农信社改革试点方案以及试点情况来看，深化农信社改革的主要内容包括两个方面：一是改革产权制度，完善法人治理结构；二是改革管理体制，将信用社交由地方政府管理。

农信社产权制度改革，其基础工作是处理历史遗留问题。根据农信社实际情况，对资产大于负债的，其积累部分首先按规定提足股金分红、应付未付利息、各类保险基金；其次按资产风险程度提取风险准备金，作为信用社的附属资本；仍有剩余的，可拿出一定比例对原有股金予以增值。对资不抵债但目前还难以撤销的信用社，先用现有积累冲抵历年挂账亏损，其余部分落实经营责任，通过采取转换机制、加强管理、政策扶持等多种措施逐步消化。同时，按照股权结构多样化原则，各地分别进行产权改革试点。有条件的地区可以进行股份制改造，对暂不具备条件的地区可以比照股份制原则，实行股份合作制。对股份制改造有困难而又适合搞合作制的，也可以进一步完善合作制。在加快产权制度改革的同时，加大对高风险信用社进行兼并和重组的步伐，对一些资不抵债的信用社，按照《金融机构撤销条例》予以撤销。

农信社管理体制改革，一个重要环节是将信用社交由省级政府负责。但对农信社的监管，仍由人民银行、国家银监会与省级政府分工协作，各司其责。省级政府对信用社管理的主要职责是：督促信用社贯彻执行国家金融方针政策，引导信用社坚持为“三农”服务的经营宗旨；指导本地区信用社加强自律性管理，督促信用社依法选举领导班子和聘用主要管理人员；对今后发生的高风险机构的处置，在省级政府承诺同意由中央财政从转移支付中扣划的前提下，中央银行可以提供临时支持；帮助信用社清收旧贷，打击逃废债行为，查处信用社各类案件，建立良好的信用环境，维护农村金融秩序的稳定。银监会作为国家银行监管机构，承担对信用社的金融监管职能，主要是根据有关法律法规制定相应的监管制度和办法；对审批机构的设立、变更、终止及其业务范围做出规定；进一步做好信息统计和风险评价，对违法违规行为进行查处；进一步做好审查高级管理人员的任职资格等工作。

按照这一思路，２００３年８月，国家在浙江、山东、江西、贵州、吉林、重庆、陕西和江苏８个省市率先进行农村信用社改革试点。为了使信用社改革试点顺利进行，国家以补贴、税收、资金等多种方式给予诸多政策支持。国家资金支持采取两种方式：一种是由人民银行按照２００２年底实际资不抵债数额的５０％，安排专项再贷款；一种是人民银行按２００２年底实际资不抵债数额的５０％，发行专项中央银行票据，用于置换信用社的不良贷款。上述两种方式可由试点地区自主选择，具体办法由人民银行另行规定。

在改革试点的推动下，２００４年第二季度以来农信社资金运营状况开始好转。到２００４年底，全国农信社各项存款余额已达２７８４．９７亿元，全国农信社包括农村商业银行、农村合作银行全行业１０年来首次实现统算盈余。

走向新生需要艰难探索

回顾改革历程，我国近年来虽然加大了农信社改革力度，但目前在总体上仍没有改变其发展弱化的状况。新一轮改革尽管力度很大，但农信社毕竟是我国农村改革中的一个薄弱环节，走向新生要有一个艰难探索的过程。当前要特别注重几个关键问题。

注重制度建设。农信社发展面临的一系列难题，除部分政策性因素外，根源还在于农信社缺乏严格有效的制度约束。这次改革突出了制度建设，加强了对农信社员工的培训教育，从而使农信社改革和发展的每一步都沿着法制化轨道稳步推进。目前，制度建设应把重点放在建立健全财务会计制度上。在加快改革中，随着省级信用联社、农村合作银行等新型金融组织形式的出现，农信社如不及时建立和完善财务会计制度，势必造成财会行为失范，危及地区金融稳定。同时，要尽快建立健全内部控制制度。内部控制制度是为

实现单位运营效率效果、财务报告的可靠性等目标，由单位理事层、经理层和其他员工共同实施的，包括控制环境、风险评估、信息沟通和监督等在内的风险防范体系。

注重体制创新。经济合作制曾是近代不少人士实现均贫富理想的选择。１９世纪３０—５０年代，在欧文的倡导及实践下，欧美的金融信用类合作社曾有过较快的发展。１９９４年底，全世界还有５．５万家金融类合作社，其中美国有１．１万多家，一般由同一企业员工集资组成，有些也由当地工会、教堂或退休人员协会发动各自成员参加，资金以内部调剂为主，只求保本运作。借鉴发达国家的经验教训，今后我国农信社在改革方向上要继续坚持合作制原则，主要发展具有内部互助性质的社区性金融合作组织，一些基层社及县级社将来也可以发展为带有合作性质的股份制中小银行，与其他金融机构一起，服务于本地域的经济发展。

注重整体推进。农信社改革是一项系统工程，如果单兵深入，是很难成功的，也很难满足农村多样化的金融需求。当前，在加快农信社发展的同时，增强农业发展银行为“三农”服务的功能，鼓励其他商业银行为农村发展服务，已经成为重构农村金融体系的紧迫任务。国家应通过建立和完善农村金融市场，整合对农村的资金投入，加大对农村公共品的投入力度。除此之外，中央财政和省级财政应运用补偿性财政支出，向承担政策性金融业务的农村金融机构提供贴息资金和呆账损失补偿，用少量的财政补贴引导社会资金流向农业和农村。

（作者乌东峰，求索杂志主编、博士生导师；王国平，湖南大学教授）