从合作原则看英语委婉语研究

第一篇：从合作原则看英语委婉语研究

[Abstract] The word “euphemism” comes from the Greek, eu--means “good”, and –pheme-, “speech” or “saying”, and together it means literally “to speak with good words or in a pleasant manner”.Euphemism, as a cultural phenomenon as well as a linguistic concept, has attracted people’s attention for a long time.It has long been a topic of much interest.Generally speaking, people would use more euphemisms in communicating with the opposite sex;women would use more than men would;older people would use more than younger generations.people would more use euphemisms in “power” relations than in close relations.people with higher education would use more euphemisms.The above factors: age, sex, social status, education, etc.do not work separately.In communicating, they are interlaced with each other and guide our choice of euphemisms.Whether to use euphemisms or taboo words also depends, to a large extent, on the attitudes of participants(particularly speakers)and the purpose of conversations.The article consists of six parts.part one explains what the meaning of euphemism is.part two is saying the Cooperative principle in briefly.Cooperative principle, the cornerstone theory of pragmatics, is one of the main principles that guide people’s communication.The Cooperative principle and its maxims can explain what the literal meaning is and its real intention in communication and ensure that in an exchange of conversation.part three presents, the formation euphemism, namely, formal innovation, semantic innovation, rhetorical devices, and grammatical ways.part four discusses the communicative function of euphemism is substitution, politeness, disguise, defense, etc.part five serves as the main body of this article.Generally speaking, euphemisms violate the Quality, Quantity and Manner Maxim of the Cp due to different reasons like substitution, disguise etc.And basically euphemisms observe the Relation Maxim.From the analysis, it can be also found that sometimes an euphemism can be regarded as violation of two maxims of the Cp at the same time.part six concludes the whole article.[Key Words] Cooperative principle;Euphemism;Communicative function

【摘 要】委婉语(euphemism)一词起源于希腊语。Eu意思是“好的”，pheme意思是“话语”，因此字面上的意思是说好听的话或用礼貌的方式说话。委婉语是一个语言学概念，同时也是一种文化现象，长久以来一直受到人们的关注。总体上讲人们在与异性进行言语交际时，要比在同性面前更多地使用委婉语，女性要比男性更多地使用委婉语，年长的人要比年青的人更多地使用委婉语。人们在“权势关系”的语境中往往要比在“亲密关系”的语境中更多地使用委婉语。受教育程度越高的人，越注意自己的言谈，因而更多地使用委婉语。上述因素年龄、性别、社会地位、教育等并不孤立存在，在交际中，他们交织在一起决定着委婉语的使用。是否使用委婉语还要考虑说话者的态度和交谈的目的。文章由六个部分组成。第一部分解释了什么是委婉语。第二部分简单列出合作原则的各项原则。它作为语用学的理论基石之一，是指导人们语言交际的原则之一。它可以很好地解释话语的字面意义和实际意义的关系，这对于交际委婉语显得尤为重要。第三部分说明委婉语的构成可以有很多种方式：形式变化，语义变化，修辞手段和语法手段。第四部分阐述了交际委婉语出于替代、掩饰、和礼貌等功能。第五部分是文章的主体，并说明委婉语出于替代、掩饰、和礼貌等原因主要违反了合作原则中的质、量和方式三个次则，基本上是遵循了合作原则中的相关原则。第六部分总结全文。

【关键字】合作原则;委婉语;交际功能

1.Introduction

In the Oxford Advanced Learner’s English – Chinese Dictionary the explanation of Euphemism is “(example of the)use of pleasant, mild or indirect words or phrases in place of more accurate or direct ones”[1].And in the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English the explanation of Euphemism is “(an example of)the use of a pleasanter, less direct name for something thought to be unpleasant”[2].For example, the man who wants to us to call him a “sanitation engineer” instead of a “garbage man” is hoping we will treat him with more respect than we presently do.“The word 'euphemism' comes from the Greek eu meaning 'good' and pheme meaning 'speech' or 'saying', and thus means literally 'to speak with good words or in a pleasant manner'”[3].Euphemisms have various reasons for existence.They conceal the things people fear the most—death, the dead, the supernatural.They cover up the facts of life—of sex and reproduction and excretion—which inevitably remind even the most refined people that they are made of clay, or worse.They are beloved by individuals and institutions(governments, especially)that are anxious to present only the handsomest possible images of themselves to the world.And they are imbedded so deeply in our language that few of us, even those who pride themselves on being plainspoken, ever get through a day without using them.But some people still mistake the euphemisms in the conversation by the Cooperative principle.Violating the Cp, people also can continue the conversation with euphemisms, which make the author interest in attitudes of participants and the purpose of conversation.That is our body today.2.Formation of euphemisms

2.1 Formal innovation

To avoid the emergence of certain letter or sound may achieve the effect of euphemizing.The formal innovation can hide audio-visually those words we don’t want to say or we shouldn’t say so as to achieve better outcome in communication.2.1.1Abbreviation

Abbreviation is the shortening of a word and may be seen in the use of the British expression LADIES for ladies’ room.There also is GENTS for gentlemen’s room.2.1.2 Apocopation

Apocopation is another form of abbreviation apparent in the use of vamp for vampire here meaning a seductive woman.And lav is for lavatory;homo is for homosexual;coca is for cocaine;bra is for brassiere.2.1.3 Initialing

Initialing is the use of acronyms instead of their component parts as in “JC for “Jesus Christ”, BM for bowel movement”[4], “W.C for water closet, B.O for body odor, V.D for venereal disease, AIDS for acquired immune deficiency syndrome, SARS for severe acute respiratory syndrome”[5].2.1.4 Backforming

Backforming is the substitution for one part of speech(used in shortened form)for another, as in “burgle(rob)which is derived from 'burglar'”[6].2.1.5 Reduplication

Reduplication is the repetition of a syllable or letter of a word.particularly common in children’s bathroom vocabulary, it substitutes “pee-pee for'piss', poo-poo for 'bowel movement'”[7].2.1.6 Blend word

A blend word is a form of phonetic distortion in which two or more words are squeezed together both orthographically and phonetically.An example of this is “gezunda for a chamber pot, a term derived from the fact that this object 'goes under the bed'”[8].2.1.7 Diminutive

A diminutive is the formation of a new term by nicking or shortening a name and adding a suffix indicating affection or smallness.“Heinie, for example, is the diminutive of 'hind end' and refers to the buttocks”[9].2.2 Semantic innovation

2.2.1 Borrowing

Most obviously, euphemisms may be formed by borrowing words from other languages—terms that are less freighted with negative associations.Thus, we use Greek and Latin expressions for many bodily parts and functions.We have coined halitosis(bad breath)from the Latin(halitus)for “breath” and we have substituted micturition for the more vulgar Indo-European “piss”.In addition, English euphemisms also borrowed a lot of scientific or academic terms, which are believed to be more euphemistic and objective than the usual terms, such as magnetic for “sexy” and perspire for “sweat” and so on.2.2.2 Widening

Euphemisms may be made by a semantic process called widening.When a specific term becomes too painful or vivid, we move up in the ladder of abstraction.In this way, cancer becomes growth and a girdle becomes a foundation.Sometimes, in addition to widening we divide the negative connotations of a single direct term between two or more words.Instead of saying “syphilis” openly, we speak of a social disease.2.2.3 Semantic shift

Allied to the phenomenon of widening is that of semantic shift.This is the substitution of the whole, or a similar generality, for the specific part we do not choose to discuss.We may create such metonymies(substitutions of the whole for the part)as rear end for “buttocks”.Sometimes, as in the expressions “to sleep with/go to bed with someone”[10], we use words naming the larger event in place of more precise references to the sexual relations that are part of the process.2.3 Rhetorical devices

2.3.1 Metaphor

Euphemisms may be made by a process called metaphorical transfer, the comparison of things of one kind to things of another.The euphemisms chosen are often romanticizing, poeticizing and softening of the original words like “go to sleep;go to his long home;be home and free;rest in peace;be at rest;go to Heaven/paradise;join one's ancestors;be gathered to one's fathers;join the immorals for die”[11], shock for random bombing, constructive destruction for severe damage, have a road to travel for have a long time to reach an agreement and etc..2.3.2 Aposiopesis

In English, there is a kind of rhetoric called aposiopesis that can also act as the way of euphemizing.When we think we should not say something under certain conditions, we suddenly stop as when we say someone is out(of work);she is expecting(a baby);“to take precautions(against pregnancy);to depart(from this world)”[12]

2.3.3Analogy

Analogy can often be seen in the vocabularies of work.A tendency to elevate menial or unskilled jobs—sometimes substituting a grand title for a large salary—can make offal smell like a rose by promoting garbage men to sanitation engineers or even to waste--reduction managers.By implication, they become highly trained technicians and executives.Health-club staffs become fitness coordinators, and senators now have their shoes shined by the footwear maintenance engineer, formerly the Senate bootblack.Even if you are not a government official, your janitor is now your buiding maintenance engineer.2.3.4 Understatement

Understatement displays people’s desire to make their language less painful and direct.So there is never an ugly woman in this world, she is at least plain.Teachers only tell parents that their child is a bit slow for his age, not retarded.And call senior citizen for old person.“Take other's things without permission” can be instead of “steal”.2.3.5 periphrasis

periphrasis is just beating around the bush.people often say euphemisms are weasel words, because people never call a spade a spade when using euphemisms.Fart is not pleasant to ear, so people call it wind from the behind.Someone wants you to go away, but he only says he will call your carriage for you.Someone living at the government expense may make you envy him, but actually he is in prison.“Many sayings about going to WC make a good use of periphrasis like wash one’s hands, powder one’s nose, spend a penny.So do the 'drop' for 'adjustment downward'[13]”

2.4.Grammatical ways

According to Bolinger, “Euphemism is not restricted to the lexicon.There are grammatical ways of toning something down”.Therefore, euphemizing should not be limited to lexical ways;it can also be achieved by grammatical ways.2.4.1 Tense

In English, tense can lend a little euphemistic color to the expressions for something undesired.Especially when people use want, hope, think and wonder or words like that they may also make use of the tense to sound more euphemistically.For example, I wondered if you would mind helping me? or ”I wondered if you could help me?“[14].Asking help this way, people won’t feel so embarrassed if they were refused.2.4.2 Syntactical negation

This method can lesson the painful impact of the language that is not welcomed.We say she is not pretty(Actually she is very ugly), but that is acceptable, because not pretty does not equal to “ugly”, it could be “plain” too.Not pretty has a wider range of meaning than ugly.Similar usages are as the following: I don’t think, I am afraid, I am not sure, I don't like,etc.2.4.3 First personal pronouns

The use of first personal pronouns like we, ours, us, etc, can also make our speeches sound more euphemistic.You would feel more welcomed if you used we or our quite often.If a doctor said to you how do we feel today, you would feel very warm and comfortable, because it makes you think that this kind doctor takes your illness as mutual concern.Communicative functions of euphemisms

Language is for communication, whereas euphemisms may lead to better communication.Using euphemisms can avoid being presumptuous in language communication.When we have to touch some topics that are unpleasant, we tend to choose more euphemistic expressions to refer to those painful topics so as not to hurt the hearer’s feeling.We can find the theoretical foundation for this motivation in Leech’s politeness principle.Euphemisms just minimize the impoliteness and maximize the politeness in communication.The functions of euphemisms are in agreement with those of politeness principle too, as they both offer more benefit to the hearer and leave more cost to the speaker, with the purpose that both of the two sides will feel respected and have favorable impression of each other.As politeness is usually regarded as the manifestation of human civilization, euphemism is one of the most effective strategies to display politeness while modulating interpersonal relationship in human communication.3.1 Substitution

According to the definitions of euphemism and we know that a great number of English euphemisms serve as the substitutions for verbal taboos.The term taboo(ta meaning “mark”, boo meaning “exceedingly”)of polynesian origin denotes anything linguistic and nonlinguistic, which is prohibited or forbidden.Taboo refers to the situation in which a word or name can be used in a community only under special conditions, whether only by certain persons or only in certain circumstances.Just as violating a cultural taboo can be quite offensive, so is it with a verbal taboo in press conferences.The “word” has been and continues to be in most societies perceived as a powerful instrument that may evoke evil spirits, make bad things happen and instigate to violence and revolution and numerous other activities.While taboo of words occurs when a particular topic is considered valid for discussion, euphemistic expression or terms are required.So diplomatic euphemisms have a very serious reason for being.They can conceal the things people fear most —death, the dead or the supernatural.Euphemisms can also eliminate unhappiness, embarrassment and fear etc.so as to relieve people psychologically.3.2 politeness

politeness is another very important function that euphemisms serve in social life.”Some of the euphemisms are used to avoid crudeness and indecency for the sake of a polite conversation.“[15] Grice formulated Cooperative principle of utterance in which the Maxim of Manner was defined as “Be perspicuous and specific;To avoid obscurity;To avoid ambiguity;To be brief and to be orderly.” The roundabout nature of euphemisms goes against the Maxim of Manner, which can only be fairly explained well by Leech’s politeness principle “Approbation Maxim: minimize dispraise of other, maximize praise of other”.In other words, euphemisms are to minimize impolite expressions and maximize polite expressions.3.3 Disguise

Besides the two functions of euphemisms mentioned above, there is still another one more important function at work in euphemistic communication, namely, the Disguise Function.Here we mean that because of the vagueness of euphemisms, it has become a very important tool for political leaders or the diplomats or statesmen to distort the facts or and present a false picture of peace and prosperity and to beautify whatever the authority have done.For example, in the Iraq War, they use “Operation Iraqi Freedom” for beautifying their military invasion, “possible movement” refers to military attack, “air operation” or “air strikes” for air attack, “enter the war” to show their reluctance to fight the war etc.and we may find many such kind of these euphemisms in press conferences.The most important and ultimate function or purpose of the use of diplomatic euphemisms in press conferences is to disguise or beautify their invasive essence or other evil actions or the separation of words from truth.In American and British societies nowadays, diplomatic euphemisms are always purposely devised to disguise scandals in wars and politics, deliberately invented to beautify lowly occupations and excessively inflated to promote sales in advertisement.4.The Cooperative principle

Before going on, we look at two examples, as follows:

(1)”A: Can you tell me the time?

B: Well, the mail has already come.(2)A: Are you going to John’s birthday party?

B: I’ve heard Mary is going.“[16]

It seems there are some mistake in the conversations.But in fact, it is correct.The Cooperative principle will help us understand more.The Cooperative principle is as follows:” Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.“[17]

According Grice, Cooperative principle is classified into four categories: quantity, quality, relation and manner.The category of quantity relates to the quantity ofinformation to be provided, and under it fall the following maxims：

4.1 The maxim of Quality:

”Try to make your contribution one that is true,.specifically:

(i)do not say what you believe to be false.(ii)do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence“[18]

4.2 The maxim of Quantity:

”(i)Make your contribution as informative as is required for the current purposes of the exchange

(ii)Do not make your contribution more informative than is required“[19]

4.3 The maxim of Relation:

”Make your contribution relevant.“[20]

4.4 The maxim of Manner:

”Be perspicuous and specifically:

(i)avoid obscurity of expression.(ii)avoid ambiguity.(iii)be brief

(iv)be orderly.“[21]

From what mentioned above, we may know that the Cooperative principle enables one participant in a conversation to communicate on the assumption that the other participant is being cooperative.These four maxims form a necessary part of the description of linguistic meaning in that they explain how it is that the speakers often “mean more than they say” in their communications.”We may decide to withhold whatever information we possess:’ No comment!’ We may inadvertently infringe a maxim or we can secretly violate a maxim—e.g.A could maliciously and falsely tell B that Janet had walked in the opposite direction from the post office.Or – more importantly – we can make a blatant show of breaking one of the maxims(Grice terms this flouting a maxim), in order to lead the addressee to look for a covert, implied meaning.“[22].For examples,(3)”At the time of recording, all the members of the cast were members of The BBC players.(Implicature: One or more of them are no longer members of The BBC players.)“[23]

Generally speaking, ”in Grice’s analysis, the speaker’s flouting of a maxim combined with the hearer’s assumption that the speaker has nor really abandoned the co-operative principle leads to an implicature“[24].One thing that deserves our attention is that the four maxims, expressed in the imperative mood have sometimes been misunderstood as instructions for a speaker to behave in conversation.5.possible violating the Cooperative principle in the use of euphemisms

In the light of the foregoing literature review and the theoretical bases, we know that euphemisms or euphemistic expressions are important and people often use them in communication.In reality, it can be found that these diplomats and statesmen etc.also use euphemisms or euphemistic expressions in the question-answer patterns.These statesmen make sharp things or unpleasant things sound pleasant etc.otherwise the use of euphemisms may even cause misunderstandings.So the next we will talk about communication with the theories of Cooperative principle.For example, to be specific, diplomatic euphemisms of press conferences are mainly chosen as the substitution of an agreeable or inoffensive word or expression for one that is harsh, indelicate or unpleasant to the other side.They are chosen from both the lexical approach and the rhetorical approach.In communication like the question-answer patterns in press conferences, generally people or participants are required to observe the Cp in order to make their conversation moves forward smoothly and successfully.But in reality, in order to meet a certain communicative need, especially in press conferences concerning diplomacy, actually people seldom speaks by always faithfully observing these four maxims of the Cp.Therefore Grice himself also suggests 5 ways participants can deal with these maxims.First, speakers can straightforwardly follow the maxims, that is, they can speak the truth while giving just enough relevant information in a clear, unambiguous, succinct and orderly manner.Many people do just that most of time.Second, someone may violate a maxim, as you would do if you told a deliberate lie.A third thing that can happen is that a speaker can ‘opt out’ of a maxim, this seems to be an uncommon occurrence.The fourth possibility is the maxim clash;cases in which you would have to violate one maxim in order to fulfill another.And perhaps this is the most case of violation of the maxims in press conferences.The fifth and most intriguing way to deal with the maxims of conversation is to flout one of them.When a maxim is flouted, a speaker doesn't observe the maxim, but cannot be accused of violating it either, because the transgression is so flagrant that it is totally obvious that the speaker knows he or she is not observing it and realizes everyone else in the conversation knows it too.The existence of the maxims of the Cp makes the conversational implicature possible especially on the conditions like in press conferences etc..Conversational implicature allows a speaker of any side in press conferences to convey meaning beyond what is literally expressed.Speakers in press conferences can often use euphemisms or euphemistic expressions to produce conversational implicature or more meaning that the hearers can also figure out its real intentions rather than the literal meaning by violating some certain maxims.5.1.Violation of Quality Maxim

”Violation of Quality Maxim means by saying things that are not true or the fact and making irresponsible and insincere remarks by the speakers.It can produce some specifical content: humor, or disguise the intention such as Ministry of Defence for Ministry of War, life insurence for insurance when you are dead, freedom fighters for terrorists.“[25] Frankly speaking, euphemisms have a tendency to violate Quality Maxim in order to express unpleasant things or ideas etc.in an indirect, roundabout and pleasant way.Therefore if hearers want to know the real intentions , they should infer the conversational implicature from the illocutionary meaning based on the special context.Moreover hyperbole and understatement also don't obey the Quality Maxim, for all these contribution are true.Let us look at some examples as follows:

(4)Q: Britain and France both put troops on standby alert … for possible movement into Kosovo.While … has the U.S.put any units on stand-by for a possible movement to Kosovo?

A: In view of the fact that … our forces remain at their current state of readiness.There … increase that state of alertness at this point.Obviously… on short stand-by… air operations, would….In the above Q-A patterns of the transcripts, we can see diplomatic euphemisms like “possible movement”, “at their current state of readiness” and “air operation” etc.are used in press conferences that violate the Quality Maxim.From the specific context we know that here “possible movement” mainly means “possible military attack”, “at their current state of readiness” refers to “at their current state of fighting ” and “air operation” refers to “air war” or “air fight” etc..Still we can find more examples violating Quality Maxim of the Cp in press conferences like “Ministry of Defense” for “Ministry of War”, “entering into Kosovo” or “go into Kosovo” for “invade Kosovo” or “invasion” and “information” for “military intelligence” and also “active defense” for “attack” etc..By saying that, the authority can distort the facts to some extent and also reduce its bad impressions on the public.Hence the authority can present a false picture to the public and to beautify or disguise whatever they have done.5.2 Violation of Quantity Maxim

”Violation of Quantity Maxim is by providing non-informative information or by either providing less or more information than actually needed.Strictly speaking, acronym and abbreviation, two main ways of the formation of euphemism, are the two main ways of violating the Quantity Maxim.For example, execute is for execute death penalty, I need to go is for I need to go to the lavatory, commfu for complete monumental military fuck up , S.O.S for son-of-a-bitch.“[26] Some euphemisms or euphemistic expressions are created by contributing less information to violate the Quantity Maxim in order to make unpleasant, rude or offensive words sound more pleasant, polite and elegant.Let us have a look at some expressions used in press conferences violate the Quantity Maxim of the Cp.(5)Q: General Naumann said … military targets?

A:(Cohen): As we indicated the ACTORD was … Serbian forces were really posing a serious threat to several … the cold or from starving.That ACTORD was … innocent people.That ACTORD remains … General Naumann has referred to.Let us have a look at another example:

(6)Q: General, … Could you … in the event of a conflict and … in terms of a liaison with the NGOs and …?

A: Well, their role is…civil-military affairs organizations, … in the CENTCOM theater …

In the above two question-answer patterns in press conferences we may say that these diplomatic euphemisms violate the Quantity Maxim because they failed to give us the right amount of information we needed or we may also say that they provided less information.By using these euphemisms the speakers like the diplomats and statesmen etc.can avoid mentioning these unpleasant terms or notions like central command and activation order etc.in press conferences.Among the euphemisms used in press conferences, we may still find that some of the euphemisms can be regarded as a special case that violate both the Quality Maxim and the Quantity Maxim etc..Hence in a broad sense we may say that euphemisms that violate the Quality Maxim can also be regarded as a special case that violate the Quantity Maxim because the two maxims are closely related.If a euphemism violates Quality Maxim, it also violates Quantity Maxim to a certain extent.For example, the euphemisms like “possible movement” for “possible military attack” or “possible war”;“brought the world together” mainly refers to those countries led by the USA.Hence from this point of view we may that euphemisms like “possible movement”, “brought the world together” etc.not only violate the Quality Maxim but also violate the Quantity Maxim because to a certain extent they distort the facts and provide less information than people actually need.5.3 Euphemisms and the Relation Maxim

As we mentioned before that the Maxim of Relation refers to “Be relevant” and violation of Relation Maxim means that the utterance of a speaker is irrelevant to the conversation or the specific context for some reasons or some purposes.Sometimes we may find English euphemisms are to use irrelevant utterances on the surface to express something that the speakers want to say and cannot say.In fact the implied meaning of the utterances is relevant partially because the formation of English euphemisms abides these formative principles like pleasant-sound principle etc..For example,(7)”I approached her very hesitatly.“Want to come and play?”

piquette looked at me with a sudduen flash of scorn.“I ain't a kid,” she said.Wounded, I stamped angrily away...“[27]

Here, ”I ain't a kid“ seems no relationto this conversation.But there implicature meaning is only kids play--I ain't kid--I won't play with you.So, it is indirect refuse of communicating.In English “to pass away” is used in a euphemistic sense for “to die” now.The denotation of “to pass away” is “to go away for a time”;while “to die” means “to go away forever”.“To die” is euphemized as “to go away” by violating the Relation Maxim on the surface, in fact, both the two phrases have the relevant meaning to “to go away”.Their difference lies only in the time, one is for a period of time, the other is forever.So when the speaker use “to pass away” to replace “to die”, the hearers may infer the conversational implicature of “to die” from the relevant meaning “to go away”.So with time goes on, it is now almost used as a fixed usage for “to die” in almost all the circumstances.5.4 Violation of Manner Maxim

Violation of Manner Maxim means giving obscure and ambiguous information etc..Sometimes under the communicative circumstances, the speaker, in order to avoid mentioning unpleasant and embarrassed things in a direct way, say something obscurely and ambiguously, then the hearers should carefully infer the conversational implicature of the speaker and what is their real intentions and meaning according to the specific context.So we may find many euphemisms tend to violate the Maxim of Manner so as to achieve the mild, agreeable, roundabout and pleasant-sound effects.We can also take the following as examples to illustrate how euphemisms violate the Manner Maxim.”A educator cannot say a student is lazy, idle, stupid, or clever.Instead of them is educationally and socially disadvantaged groups, underachieved, those on the lower end of the ability-scale, high verbal-ability subjects, disadvantaged home enviornments, underprivileged child.“[28] Obviously, these words violates Manner Maxim o f being brief.Another example, ”perhaps you had better get your affairs in order." This is a notion of death from the doctor.it's wordy but not unnecessary.one-way-ticket is for die.It reflect one's experience and cognition.6.Conclusion

As we stated earlier, euphemism is one of the important and universal linguistic phenomena.Due to the special characteristics like substitution, indirectness etc.it is becoming one of the main communicative approaches This thesis has attempted to study the euphemistic expressions used in the question-answer patterns from the perspective of pragmatics.The article is an overview of the functions and communicative functions of euphemism, and from the pragmatic analysis of the materials, it can be seen clearly that the use of euphemisms basically violate the Quality Maxim, the Quantity Maxim, and the Manner Maxim of the Cooperative principle and the frequency of violating the Quality Maxim is the highest among the three ones.That is to say, the euphemisms used in the question-answer patterns generally do not violate the Relation Maxim of the Cooperative principle.There is an old saying in English: Necessity is the mother of invention.The creation of euphemisms also cannot depart from people’s needs of them.people need euphemisms for social communication, to euphemize the taboo, to show their politeness and to disguise.As a sociolinguistic phenomenon, the formation of euphemisms is the result of the combination of various social psychological factors and pragmatic factors.Studies on euphemisms from a pragmatic perspective reveal how euphemisms flout the Cooperative principle so as to obey the politeness principle in communication and how factors from their sociocultural and communicational context influence their application in communication.Any change of one or more factors of a communication event, will have an effect on our decision of whether to use euphemisms.The expressive euphemisms play a non-fungible role in communication.It is euphemism that makes language more powerful, magical and pleasant.people’s speech does reflect their background, their activities, and the values they hold, therefore, we can learn much about the English people by looking at their use of euphemisms.The studies on English euphemisms can not only help to develop intercultural communicative competence, but also enlighten English language learning and teaching.Therefore, multidisciplinary, multi-angle, and multi-level studies on euphemisms are necessary for English learners to understand the English history and society and communicate with native English speakers better.There are still a lot in this field waiting to be explored, and euphemisms deserve more attention and comprehensive studies.Bibliography

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2[4] 马登阁.从语用学看语言交际中的礼貌原则及英语礼貌语言的表达方式[J].北京第二外国语学院学报, 1995,(2): p3

[5] 胡春梅.论委婉语的构成及功能[J].浙江教育学院学报, 2005,(1): p30

[6] 李国南.辞格与词汇[M].上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 2001: p201

[7] 同[5], p30

[8] 同[3], p378

[9] 同[4], p3

[10] 同[3], p379

[11] 同[6], p19

5[12] 同[6], p197

[13] 向仍东.浅析英语委婉的特征、构成及作用[J].长沙大学学报, 2005,(1): p83

[14] 同[4], p4

[15] 同[5], p32

[16] 何兆熊.新编语用学概要[M].上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 2000: p152

[17] George Yule.pragmatics[M].Oxford: Oxford University press, 1996: p37

[18] 同[16], p154

[19] 同[16], p154

[20] 同[16], p154

[21] 同[16], p154

[22] N.E Collinge.An Encyclpaedia of Language.London: Routledge London and New York, 1990: p181

[23] 同[22], p182

[24] Jean Stilwell peccei.pragmaics语用学[M].北京: 外语教学与研究出版社, 2000: p30

[25] 徐莉娜.跨文化交际中的委婉语解读策略[J].外语与外语教学, 2002,(9):p8

[26] 同[25], p8

[27] 同[25], p8

[28] 同[25], p8

第二篇：从委婉语与禁忌语看东西方文化差异

从 委婉语与 禁忌语看东西方文化差异

摘要： 委婉语与 禁忌语是人们使用语言的重要形式，在人际交往中起着重要的作用。委婉语与 禁忌语随着文明的发展，沉淀了丰富的文化内涵。本文通过对东西方 委婉语与 禁忌语的对比研究，揭示了东西方文化在宗教、等级观念以及礼仪方面的差异，便于了解不同民族文化的特色。

关键词： 委婉语;禁忌语;东西方文化差异

Abstract:Euphemisms and taboos are important forms in language use, and playimportant roles in interpersonal communication.With the development ofculture, it precipitates a large amount of cultural factors.In orderto understand different cultural characteristics in differentcountries, this paper provides you with the differences in religion,hierarchy concepts and ceremony and propriety through the usage ofeuphemisms and taboos in west and east countries.Key words: euphemisms, taboos, and cultural differences

语言是社会发展的产物，同时也就反映了社会生活，随着历史的进步的发展，语言也发生了很多的变化。由于宗教、迷信、礼仪以及科技不发达的原因，某些语言就被禁止使用，同是也就出现了用另外的语言来替代这种语言的现象，于是就出现了 委婉语与 禁忌语。在不同的民族和文化中都存在着 委婉语与 禁忌语，如果我们掌握了他们，就能够在日常生活特别是在跨文化交际中，提高我们的交际能力。

一、婉语与 禁忌语的起源与发展

委婉语（Euphemism）一词发源于希腊语，意思是说好听的话，古希腊人在祭祀时，都得讲吉利话，即使用 委婉语。理由是人们用 委婉语称呼神，可以起到安抚他们得作用，可以避开他们得注意。古代人对大自然的力量的不解以及科技的不发达以至于拜神弄鬼，便是 委婉语与宗教的起源。

古希腊文化后来传到欧美各国，随着时代的发展与变迁，语言的变化发展，委婉语的内容及范围也发生了极大的变化，人们在人际交往中对敏感话题禁忌的话题都采用含蓄、迂回、曲折、委婉的语言来表达，人们用不那么令人讨厌的词语，用含蓄的语言来表达那些涉及到人们隐私的话语。委婉语涉及的范围也随之变广，不仅涉及到鬼神、人的生老病死、性等方面，而且还涉及到经济、政治、文化、教育、战争等各个领域。因此，委婉语的使用，满足了人们交际的需求，同时也从各个方面反映了一个民族的社会礼仪、社会制度以及民族文化传统。

禁忌语（Taboos）发源于波利尼亚汤加语，意思是“需要极端注意的事情”，也可以被写作tabu或者是tapu。18世纪，英国水手JamesCook第一个注意到了汤加语中 禁忌语的习俗，然后把这个单词带到了英语中，根据牛津高阶英汉汉英双解词典，Taboo一词意义为 “(incertain culture)ban or prohibition on something that is regarded forreligious or other reasons as not to be done, touched,used”.由此看来，禁忌语主要使用在宗教或者是由于某些原因而不能直接说出来的场合。随着社会的进步和发展，禁忌语的数量在某种程度上来说不是减少而是增多了。因此，了解 禁忌语和 委婉语在交际中特别是跨文化交际中是非常重要的。

二．中西方 委婉语和 禁忌语的应用及对比 不同的民族都有不同的文化模式，既然语言是文化的载体，因此，一个民族语言的应用就反映了这个民族独特的文化模式。中国自古以来就被称为文明礼仪之邦，在几千年儒家思想的浸润下，形成了一个以社会、群体为中心的民族，人们互相关心、互相爱护、互相帮助；而英美等其他西方民族则以人为本，逐渐形成以自身为中心的社会。在中国，很多人都注意到，在日常生活中，人们打招呼时都会问：“你吃了饭没有？”“你到哪里去？”在交谈中，人们都迫切的想知道对方的一切，包括对方的年龄、婚姻状况、工资收入等由此来表现对人的关心；而在英美等西方国家，这些问题恰恰是禁忌的问题，他们认为这是他们自己的私事，与谈话人无关。而且还会认为你侵犯了他们的隐私权。

下面我就中西方在日常生活中使用的 委婉语与 禁忌语场合来做一些分析比较，以此说明中西方在文化上面的一些差异。

生老病死是人的一生发展必然经历的阶段，是符合自然发展规律的。但是，由于人们对疾病以及死亡的恐惧，疾病及死亡也就成了 委婉语与 禁忌语使用的场合。生育，由于在不同的文化传统中，牵涉到了性爱这一话题，因此怀孕也就成了禁忌的话题，也就有了不同的看法与表达方式。在英美等西方国家的传统文化中，人们也习惯用 委婉语来代替怀孕这样的词语。例如：在文学作品及生活中，人们很少用像“pregnancy”这样的词语，而是用了诸如：awkward(行动不便)、eating for two（吃两个人的饭）、have one on theway(有人要来)等词语来表达。在中国，由于受到儒家思想的影响，认为人的一生中有几件喜事：洞房花烛夜、喜得贵子及金榜题名时。所以把生育看作是一件喜事。于是关于生育得 委婉语也就有：“有喜了，有了”之类的说法。以至于有些人骂人家不生育的是“不下蛋的鸡、不孝有三，无后为大”，其中“不下蛋”“无后”也就成了不能生育的 委婉语了。老龄的问题，在中西方也有不同的看法：在西方，人们是不愿意被人说老的，因为西方老就意味着“无用”或者是“死亡”，得不到别人的尊敬。因此谁也不愿意说自己老，也不愿意谈老。因此，询问别人的年龄在英美等西方国家是不礼貌的，人家会告诉你“It is asecret”。也就有很多关于老人的 委婉语。如：senior people, third age, seasoned man,adult等。然而在中国，情况是恰恰相反的，由于几千年的优良传统，中国人大多数人都能尊敬老人，老人也享有特权，老人不怕老。而且中国的老人多能以自身丰富的阅历来帮助年轻人，因此，“老”在中国就成了智慧的代名词。如：老师、老板、老师傅、老张、老总等等。这些词对老并没有什么特定的年龄内涵，只是借“老”来表明说话人的敬意。关于死亡，中国也有很多说法，但总的说来可以分成两种：一种认为死亡是“喜事”，在中国，人们认为年龄大的人的死亡是“寿终正寝”是一件喜事，因此西方人怎么也闹不明白的“红白喜事”也就有了根据。这类关于死亡的说法有：“仙游、仙去、登仙、羽化、驾鹤归西、仙驭西驰、圆寂”等与神仙有关的词语来代替死亡这一悲痛事件。还有一类死亡是“悲伤的事情”，这一类的词语多用于年龄较小、或者是青年的死亡。像这类关于死亡的说法就有：“夭折、短命”等。在西方，死亡也同样是禁忌，西方的关于死亡的 委婉语来自于宗教、航海、戏剧、赌博等方面。如：pass away(逝世)、tocross over(进入来世)、to go to one’s long home(入墓)，last round up(送终)等。

关于性爱的词语，不管在东西方都是禁忌，在英美等西方国家，有相当大一部分人认为性爱是有罪的，特别是信奉基督教的人，根据《圣经》，人生下来就是有罪的，是亚当和夏娃偷吃了禁果，才有了人类，因此，性爱也被认为是有罪的，因此人们在公众场合是不会轻言性的。与性有关的语言也就成了 禁忌语，从而引发了很多关于性的 委婉语。如：make love, art of pleasure, to approach, do it, act of love等等。和西方相比，中国人就要含蓄得多，性在中国的传统文化中被认为是使人堕落和身心败坏的东西。性也就被蒙上了一层神秘的面纱。再加上几千年的封建传统文化和礼教的束缚，人们更是“谈性色变”，也就出现了关于性的一些 委婉语：闺房之事、房事、男女之事、云雨之事、那种事等来代替。即使只是与性有关的事物，人们也仍然用 委婉语来表示。如女性的第二性征：女人的乳房、月经等，再日常话语中也成了一个禁忌的话题。人们谈到乳房、乳罩时，就有人用“胸罩、眼镜、胸衣、内衣”来代替。说到月经，人们会用“例假、月事、来事儿、不舒服、倒霉、大姨妈来了”等来代替。

三．中西方文化差异和 委婉语与 禁忌语差异

中国是一个文化博大精深，拥有五千年的文明史的东方古国之一，是东方国家的代表之一，与西方国家有某些相通之处，可两者之间又存在着明显的差异。委婉语与 禁忌语是中西方文化共同的一种现象，然而他们的使用却表现了一些差异，通过上面的论述，我们可以看出，这些差异主要体现在以下几个方面。

（一）宗教的差异

从 委婉语与 禁忌语的用法上的差异，我们不难看出，英美等西方国家，主要信奉的是基督教，有很多 委婉语与 禁忌语都来源于基督教的《圣经》，以性爱和死亡为例，由于基督教认为，人类是“罪人”亚当和夏娃偷吃了禁果而繁衍的后代，部分基督教徒，特别是清教徒，是不准言性的。因此，关于性的词语也就成了 禁忌语，也就出现了很多关于性爱方面的 委婉语，如：前面所说的makelove等等。对关于死亡的词语而言，由于基督教认为，人生来就是有罪的，人的生命是上帝赋予的，所以只有人死后，灵魂才能得到拯救，于是就有了“goto meet one’s maker, be with thegod”等等。而中国教派众多，有佛教、道教等。佛教自唐朝时传入中国，佛教宣扬“诸行无常，诸法无我，一切皆苦，涅槃寂静”因此，关于汉语中关于死亡的 委婉语就有了“成佛、圆寂、坐化”等等；道教是中国本土的宗教，主要发源于老子和庄子的道家思想。大多数的宗教教义认为人生充满了不幸或者罪孽，认为死后灵魂才有可能得救。然而道教却认为生活在世界上是一件美好的事情，死亡才是痛苦的，因而道教追求的是得道成仙，这样就能超脱生死，在仙境中过仙人的生活。所以汉语中有关死亡的 委婉语就有了“仙逝、得道、成仙、羽化、归道山”等等。

（二）等级观念的差异

中华民族是一个有着几千年传统文化的礼仪之邦，深受儒家文化和封建宗法制的浸润，因此中华民族十分重视长幼尊卑，十分重视礼仪；而语言作为文化的载体，也深深的反映了等级观念。以名字的称呼为例，在汉文化中，君主、长辈的名讳是一个禁忌，作为臣子或者是晚辈的是不能直呼其名的，必须代之以亲戚关系或者是诸如陛下、万岁爷的称呼。在给新生儿命名的时候，是必须要避开长辈或者是君主的名讳的，就连看到长辈或者是君主的名字，也只能念成其他的词语，如：在《红楼梦》中，林黛玉的母亲名叫贾敏，每当林黛玉读到和“敏”字时，就把念作“秘”，或者是写到“敏”字时，都会添减两笔，这就是缘于父母的名讳在中国是 禁忌语。再有，关于死亡，君主的死亡，称为“驾崩”，而“驾崩”这一词语是万万不能用于其他成员的，只能用于君主的死亡；而在英美等西方国家，人们崇尚自由、平等。关于名字方面的 禁忌语 委婉语也就没有那么森严。以一个家族的命名为例，在英语中，一个新生儿的名字中可能包含了几代人的姓名。中华民族由于受到几千年封建思想的影响，男尊女卑的思想根深蒂固。人们深受中国传统文化的影响，特别是在封建社会时期。妇女地位低下。以君主的称呼为例，在古代中国，由于君主的名讳是 禁忌语，君主或者是皇帝就被称为“万岁、万岁爷”，而皇后或者是妃子以及所有的公主，即使是君主的母亲，都只能被称为“千岁”.而在西方,这些方面的差异可能就要小一些.(三)对于礼仪的不同体现

中国是一个具有几千年悠久历史传统的文明国家,中国人自古以来就崇尚礼仪,在人际交往中,更是注重谦让,认为谦让是对他人的尊敬.如:古人在称呼自己时通常会称自己为“鄙人”,而尊称别人为“阁下，师傅”等。通常在问别人的姓名的时候会说：“您贵姓?”。还会称自己的妻子为:“贱内、拙荆”等等，在谈到自己的儿子时会说：“犬子”，而别人的儿子则是“令公子”等等。在称呼别人的妻子时会说：“尊夫人”等等。而在英美等西方国家，人人崇尚的时实事求是，大方自信。通常不会特意的贬低自己，抬高他人。下面一则笑话则反映了中西方在对于谦让的不同理解。会中文的外国人：你的女儿真漂亮。中国人：哪里，哪里？外国人：鼻子、眼睛和嘴。这则笑话实际反映了在跨文化交际中，由于民族观念和社会习俗的差异，谦让礼貌的运用也不尽相同。

委婉语与 禁忌语是东西方语言所共同拥有的文化现象，在人们的日常生活中起到十分重要的作用，特别是在跨文化交际中，有重要的意义。中西方不同的文化背景、文化传统、不同的宗教信仰以及不同的等级观念等造成了 委婉语和 禁忌语在使用上的不同。因此，在跨文化交际中，必须要遵守不同民族的语言习惯以及社会习俗，才会使跨文化交际顺利进行，以免引起交际失误。

参考文献：

[1]邓炎昌，刘润清。语言与文化，外语教学与研究出版社，1998年。[2]范家才，英语修辞欣赏，上海交通大学出版社，1992年。[3]冯翠华，英语修辞格，北京商务印书馆，1983年。

[4]胡金，从中英 委婉语对比看中西文化差异，广西师范大学学报，2002年4月。[5]胡文仲，文化与交际，外语教学与研究出版社，1994年。

[6]李桂媛，英汉 禁忌语及 委婉语探讨，天津外国语学院学报，2004年5月。[7]李海燕，从汉英死亡 委婉语看民族文化异同，苏州大学学报，2004年6月。[8]徐莉娜，跨文化交际中的 委婉语解读策略，外语与外语教学，2002年9月。

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约翰•福尔斯《法国中尉的女人》中主角萨拉女性意识的体现 抱怨类外贸信函的语篇分析 英国议会制辩论－－探究与实践 The Study of Symbolism in Moby Dick 命运与性格－－浅论《哈姆雷特》的悲剧因素 从合作原则和礼貌原则看女性委婉语的语用功能

论《某人住在一个多美的小城镇》的语言艺术(开题报告+文献综述+论文)试析《推销员之死》中威利•洛曼的美国梦 论《弗兰肯斯坦》的叙事技巧 英语词汇的语境意义分析 论《格列佛游记》中的讽刺

与身体器官有关的中英文习语对比研究

相似的母爱，不同的表达——对比研究《黑孩子》和《宠儿》中的母亲形象 论法律英语的语言特征及其翻译 大学英语课堂教学师生互动建构浅析 中国皮钦语的产生和发展

从认知角度看“水”的一词多义现象 文化负载词的翻译

大学英语课程改革审视：基于通识教育的视角 功能对等理论在科技论文摘要翻译中的运用 浅谈中西体态语的差异

从面子理论视角分析外交话语中的恭维语

简•奥斯丁《理智与情感》中两姐妹的性格分析 跨文化视角下的中美社交礼仪的对比研究 分析《基督山伯爵》爱德蒙的二重性格

《晚安,妈妈》中公共汽车和洗衣机的象征寓意 44 浅谈一些英美文学作品中的猫形象 45 礼貌中的中西方“面子文化”差异 46 从《阿甘正传》看美国乐观主义

从《远离尘嚣》看托马斯哈代的生态自然观 48 解读托尼•莫瑞森《最蓝的眼睛》中的成长主题 49 托尼•莫里森小说的家庭关系

母语正迁移在初中英语教学中的研究与应用

许渊冲的“三美”原则在国外化妆品品牌名汉译中的应用 52 中西方餐桌礼仪文化对比

Exploring Differences Between Chinese and English Compliments 54 通过会话原则分析手机短信语言

从跨文化角度对品牌名称的研究——以化妆品品牌为例 56 从《纯真年代》中的女性角色看伊迪斯•华顿的女性意识 57 初中英语口语教学的课堂管理

A Portrait of Martin Eden as a Nietzschean 59 Etiquette and Protocol on Intercultural Business Negotiation 60 浅议中国菜名的英译

澳大利亚传记文学中的土著文化：以《我的位置》为例 62 《玻璃动物园》中的逃避主义解读

男权社会女性意识的觉醒——弗吉尼亚·伍尔夫女性主义文学研究 64 跨文化商务活动中的交际与礼仪 65 浅析英语拟声词的功能

浅析《哈克贝利费恩历险记》中的自由

Women in the Roaring Twenties– A Comparative Study of Female Characters in The Great Gatsby and The Sun Also Rises 68 The Tragic Elements in Far from the Madding Crowd 69 A Study of Corporate Crisis Management through Sanlu Tainted Milk Powder Incident 70 The Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Idioms 71 网络广告在中国营销中存在的弊端 72 语篇转喻的功能分析

辩证论视域下神似与形似的相互关系研究 74 《飘》两中译本的比较研究

显现的被动•隐现的自我——《看不见的人》中被动语态的身份建构功能研究 76 从合作原则的违反谈黑色幽默在《第二十二条军规》中的实现 77 消费文化理论视角下的《嘉莉妹妹》

Doomed Tragedy out of Desire-Driven Morbid Personalities in Nabokov’s Lolita 79 Teleology, Religion and Contexts 80 从上海迪士尼的兴建看中西文化异同

电影《喜福会》反映出的中西家庭价值观的差异 82 《动物农场》中隐喻的应用及其政治讽刺作用 83 论初中英语教学中跨文化意识的培养 84 A Comparison of the English Color Terms 85 影响英语专业学生理解英语习语的因素调查

中美商务接待文化差异

中美家庭教育文化对比及其根源分析 88 英国贵族精神和绅士教育研究 89 从生态视角解读《瓦尔登湖》 90 论隐喻的本质与功能 91 中美肥胖问题比较研究

中英称谓语的文化差异及其翻译 93

守望何物－－《麦田里的守望者》中霍尔顿的困惑 95 中美商务接待文化差异

汉英交替传译中的语篇衔接分析 97 勃朗特两姐妹创作风格差异探究 98 从旅游看中美核心文化差异 99 裘德悲剧成因的分析

浅析小组合作在小学英语教学中的应用 101 汉英翻译中文化传递的可接受度

爱默生超验主义对世纪美国人生观的影响——以《论自助》为例 103 英语商务信函中的语用分析

盖茨比美国梦的幻灭——透视现实生活中的爱情 105 礼貌原则在口译中的应用

命运与性格－－浅论《哈姆雷特》的悲剧因素

中国英语与中式英语的对比研究——从英汉民族思维差异的角度 108 跨文化传播视角下中美动画片对比

从目的论角度分析中国商品说明书的英译 110 “词块”理论及应用前景探微

从市场营销的角度论哈利•波特的成功 112 解析《老人与海》中的桑提亚哥形象

Communicative Functions of Silence in Conversations 114 浅谈经济全球化背景下的商务英语 115 新闻新词的文化内涵与翻译

浅析伍尔夫意识流小说中的叙事时间 117 双关语在英语广告中的应用与翻译研究 118 《了不起的盖茨比》的叙事技巧分析

《走出非洲》中的非洲因素与女主人公性格完善的关系

从弗洛伊德的精神分析理论浅析《道林格雷的画像》中的主要人物 121 从曼诺林角度研究圣地亚哥形象

高校学生英语口语课堂焦虑感控制的研究

《少年派的奇幻漂流》电影中的隐喻与象征手法研究 124 中英语言中动物词汇的文化含义对比

中西方文化差异对国际商务谈判的影响及对策分析 126 《喜福会》中的象征主义

英语单位名词研究——以《牛津高阶英汉双解词典（第六版）》为例 128 An Interpretation of A Tale of Two Cities from the Perspective of Symbolism 129 《蝴蝶梦》中的女权主义

A Comparison of the English Color Terms 131 从茶和咖啡的对比中体现出来的生活方式的不同 132 试析德莱塞对《嘉莉妹妹》女主人公的非道德描写 133 论《紫色》中的性别暴力

威廉·斯泰伦《苏菲的选择》叙事策略分析 135 美国俚语中的文化特征

Resurrection of Self-consciousness in Rebecca 137 The Translation of Irony in Pride and Prejudice—A Comparison of Two Chinese Versions 138 从个人英雄主义角度解读《肖申克的救赎》 139 《双城记》与《呼啸山庄》的家庭主题对比

从《到灯塔去》解读弗吉尼亚伍尔夫的女权主义思想

世纪美国男权社会下女性的成长——解读《觉醒》中埃德娜的觉醒过程和原因 142 浅析简•奥斯丁在《傲慢与偏见》中的女性主义 143 网络英语对汉语词汇的影响研究

Cultural Differences in Business Negotiations: East and West 145 英汉思维差异与翻译策略

情景教学法在小学英语教学中的运用 147 回译在翻译教学中的作用

论《红字》中“A”的象征意义

从《少年派的奇幻漂流》看人性的两面性及自我斗争 150 浅析商务谈判中的恭维语应用

151 On Allan Poe’s Application of Gothic Elements and His Breakthroughs — Through The Fall of the House Of Usher 152近年来汉语中英语借词的简析

153 浅析《库珀尔街》中英语过去时的翻译 154 目的论下英语广告仿拟格的汉译

155 亨利詹姆斯的《戴茜米勒》中的文化冲突和文化融合 156 不温不火，绵里藏针——分析《格列夫游记》的讽刺意义 157 英语构词法对词汇习得的影响

158 浅析英诗翻译的原则和方法 ——丁尼生《鹰》的不同译文比较 159 卡勒德·胡赛尼《追风筝的人》中风筝的意向分析 160 A Comparison of the English Color Terms 161 比较约翰·邓恩与艾米丽·迪金森诗歌中奇思妙喻的艺术效果

162 Memory Theories and Their Applications to English Vocabulary Learning 163 对《看得见风景的房间》的象征主义解读 164 英国哥特小说故事情节中的怪诞表现 165 Satan in Paradise Lost as a Tragic Hero 166 功能对等理论指导下的英文电影片名汉译 167 英国历险小说《所罗门王的宝藏》 168 谈电影片名汉译的不忠

169 评爱伦坡哥特小说中的恐怖美 170 紫色中女人意识的觉醒

171 堕落的世界－－－－-评菲茨杰拉德的《夜色温柔》 172 商务英语交流中委婉语的语用功能研究

173 A Study of Hawthorne’s Notion of Science as Shown in ―Rappaccini's Daughter‖ 174 电影片段在中学英语教学中的运用 175 A Comparison of the English Color Terms 176 从归化与异化的角度研究《金锁记》的翻译策略 177 A Comparison of the English Color Terms 178 浅析莫里森名作《最蓝的眼睛》中查理的性格特点

179 教师在农村初中英语游戏教学中的角色分析－－以某中学为例 180 英语反语的语用分析

181 《简爱》中的人文主义思想述评

182 中学英语口语互动教学的现状及存在的问题 183 浅析詹姆斯•乔伊斯《阿拉比》中的精神顿悟 184 盖茨比悲剧的必然性

185 英汉人称指示语的对比研究

186 A Comparison of the English Color Terms 187 《可以吃的女人》的女性主义解读 188 析《苔丝》中的象征意义 189 《赫索格》中玛德琳的性格

190 商务英语书面语语言特色的语用分析 191 论《双城记》中卡登形象的塑造及其意义 192

193 Analysis of the Distorted Love between Mother and Son in Sons and Lovers 194 论《看不见的人》的主人公的心理成长历程 195 十九世纪英国唯美主义的生成语境与基本特征 196 英语广告中仿拟的关联分析

197 从女性主义视角解读《疯狂主妇》 198 Consumerism in The Great Gatsby 199 中学英语课堂中教师的纠错策略 200 中西服饰文化差异对语言的影响

第四篇：英语中的委婉语

（1）Death(死亡）

to be asleep in the Arms of God(本义）安睡在上帝的怀中

to be at peace(本义）平静了

to be at rest(本义）在休息

to be called to God(本义）被召唤到上帝那

to be called home(本义）被召回家

to be home and free(本义）到家自由了

to be taken to paradise(本义）被送进天堂

The call of God(本义）上帝的召唤

to depart(本义）离去

The final departure(本义）最后离去

final sleep(本义）最后一觉

to go home(本义）回家

to go to heaven(本义）进天堂

to go to one's long home(本义）回到永久之家

to go to one's own place(本义）回老家

happy land(本义）乐土

to have fallen asleep(本义）入睡了

to have found rest(本义）得到安息

to have gone to a better place(land,world,life)到一个更好得地方

in heaven(本义）在天堂

to join one's ancestors(本义）加入先人的行列

join the Great majority(本义）加入大多数

to leave this world(本义）离开今世

to pay one's fee(本义）付费

to rest(本义）休息

to rest in peace(本义）安息

to return to dust(本义）归之尘土

to sleep(本义)长眠

with God(本义)和上帝在一起

with their Father(本义)与圣父在一起

to fall(本义)倒下了

to do one's bit(本义)尽职了

to lay down one's life(本义)放下自己的生命

to be no longer with us(本义)不再与我们在一起了

to be out of pain(本义)摆脱痛苦

to breathe one's last(本义)呼了最后一口气

to cancel one's account(本义)销帐

pay one's last debt(本义)付最后一笔债

kick the bucket 翘辫子

pop off(the hooks)翘辫子

get off the hooks 脱身了

to fade away(本义)消失

to make one's exit(本义)退场

to kick off(本义)开球

to be free(本义)解脱了

to be gone(本义)去了

to be no more(本义)不复存在to close one's eyes(本义)瞑目

to come to an end(本义)结束

to go beyond(本义)到远方去

to expire(本义)呼气

to go off(本义)离去

to go one's last(本义)走到自己的终点

to go one's place(本义)回老家

to go to one's resting place(本义)到休息地去

to go to west(本义)西去

to kick the bucket(本义)踢翻水桶

to lose one's life(本义)失去了生命

to pass away(本义)离去

to stop living(本义)停止生存

to take one's rest(本义)休息

to shut up the shop(本义)关门（4）灰色职业

shoe maker 补鞋匠 → shoe rebuilder 重整鞋者

dish washer 洗盘子的人 → utensil maintenance 器皿保全工 garbage man 清扫垃圾的人 → sanitation engineer 清洁工程师 butcher 屠夫 → meat technologist 肉类技术专家 hair-dresser 理发师 → cosmetologist

美容师 undertaker 承办丧事的人 → funeral director 殡仪负责人 prostitute 妓女 → pavement princess

马路天使

maid/ housekeeper(女仆/ 女管家)→domestic help / day-help 家务助手，day-help 白天帮工，live-in help 住家帮手 optician(眼镜商)→vision engineer(视力工程师

bedding manufacturer(床具制造商)→ mattress engineer(床垫工程师)或sleep engineer(睡眠工程师)School principal(中小学校长)→ educational engineer(教育工程师)tree surgeon

花木外科医师 beautician

美容师

street orderly / sanitary engineer 街道清洁师/卫生工程师 maintenance engineer（维修工程师）→房屋管理员； landscape-architect（风景建筑师）→园林工人； tree-surgeon（树木手术师）→修树剪枝的工人； shoe-rebuilder（鞋子再造者）→修鞋匠； sanitation engineer（卫生工程师）→垃圾工人； pipe engineer（管道工程师）→ 管道工 heating engineer（水暖工程师）→管工；

telephone engineer（电话工程师）→修理电话的技工； extermination engineer（除害工程师）→灭鼠工人； beautician（美容师）→理发师；

household executive（家政委员）→家庭妇女（7）排泄物

to be caught short(本义）给了个冷不妨

the call of nature(本义）自然的需要

Can I add some powder?(本义）我可以茶点粉吗?

to cash(write)a check(本义）兑(开)张支票

to do a job for oneself(本义）做点私事

do one's business(本义）干自己的活

to do one's duty(本义）尽职

to ease oneself(本义）自我轻松一下

to eliminate(本义）逐出

evacuation(本义）排空

to excrete(本义）排泄

to find a haven of rest(本义）寻找安息所

to fix one's face(本义）化装

to freshen up(本义）梳洗打扮

to get some fresh air(本义）去呼吸一点新鲜空气

to give oneself ease(本义）使自己舒服一下 to pass water（去排水）→ 小便 to see the stars（看星星）→方便 to get some fresh air（呼吸新鲜空气）to relieve or to relieve nature（去空身）、to wash one’s hand（去洗手或净手）to see one’s aunt（去看阿姨）answer nature’s call（响应自然的召唤）go to wash－room（去洗手间）go to the bank（去银行）spend a penny（去花点小钱）to pay a call（拜访）see john（去看约翰）

to go somewhere（到什么地方去一下）、consult Mr.Jones（请教琼斯先生）pow－der one’s nose（在鼻子上擦点粉）o have a BM（=bowel movement大便）

want to make oneself comfortable（想去使自己舒服点）

to go(本义）

to go into retreat(本义）去僻静

to go somewhere(本义）出去一下

to go to Egypt(本义）到埃及去

to go to one's private office(本义）到私人办公室去

to go to bathroom(本义）到洗澡间

May I adjourn?(本义）我可以变换一下地方吗？

May I please be excused?(本义）失陪了

natural necessity(本义）自然的需要

nature stop(本义）自然需要停车

to pluck a rose(本义）摘朵玫瑰

powder one's nose(本义）搽点粉

to relieve oneself(本义）轻松一下

to wash one's hands(本义）洗洗手 厕所

powder room（化妆室）、convenience（方便去处）、cloakroom（存衣室）、loo(=waterloo, 滑铁卢)、toilet（盥洗室）、gentlemen（男士）、gents’（男士房间）、ladies（女士）、ladies’（女士房间）bathroom（浴室）、restroom（休息室）、men或men’s（男士或男士房间）、women或women’s（女士或女士房间）、comfort station（休息处）

ugly：

homely 不好看 plain 平常

plain-looking 长相一般 ordinary looking

长相一般 fat: heavyset 敦实的,富态 chubby

丰满的 plump丰满的 , 圆胖的 stout

壮实的 thin: slender 苗条的 slim 苗条的 willowy 苗条的

svelte 亭亭玉立的，身材细长的 lean

精干的

lithe

敏捷的，轻快的

她怀孕了。

She has cancelled all her social engagement.She is in an interesting condition.She is in a delicate condition.She is knitting bootees.She is in the family way.She is expecting.She is in a hn~ly way． 她快要当家了。She is knocked up． 她有了。A hole out in one(本义)一击入洞 An accident(本义)事故 Awkward(本义)行动不便的 To be caught(本义)被捉住 to be gone（本义）已过去了 to beget（本义）产生

break one's ankle（本义）脚骨折了 clucky（本义）抱窝的

eating for two（本义）吃双份饭 full of heir（本义）怀有继承人

to have a hump in the front（本义）前身有块隆肉 fragrant（本义）香喷喷的 full of heir（本义）怀有继承人

to have a hump in the front（本义）前身有块隆肉 to have one watermelon on the vine（本义）藤上有瓜了 to have one on the way（本义）有人要来 in a bad shape（本义）身体不佳

in a certain condition（本义）身处某种状态 in a delicate condition（本义）身体虚弱 in a(the)family way（本义）家常打扮 in a familiar way（本义）熟悉地

in a particular condition（本义）处于特殊状态

in an interesting condition(situation, state)（本义）处于有趣状态 in trouble（本义）惹上麻烦 infanticipating（本义）期望得子 irregularity（本义）不规则现象 knitting（本义）绒衣 to knock up（本义）敲门叫人

lady-in-waiting（本义）有所期待的女子 to learn all about diaper folding（本义）学叠尿布 a mother-to-be（本义）未来的母亲 on the nest（本义）在抱窝

preparing the bassinet（本义）准备摇篮 rattle shopping（本义）采购玩具 rehearing lullabies（本义）练唱催眠曲 to spoil a woman's shape（本义）坏了女子体型 to sprain an ankle（本义）扭伤脚踝

to swallow a watermelon seed（本义）吞了棵西瓜子 that way（本义）那样

waiting for the patter of little feet（本义）等待小脚丫声 to wear the apron high（本义）围裙系高 a waiting woman（本义）等待中的妇女 with a baby window（本义）有个凸窗肚 with child（本义）怀孩子了 未婚先育

She is in trouble． 她碰到麻烦。She has been unwise． 她不够明智。She has been too friendly．她过于友善。

老年人———高级市民（senior citizens）、年长者（the elderly）、the mature(成熟)，不再很年轻（no longer very young）

distinguished gentleman(尊贵的先生，婉指老人);grande dame（贵妇人，婉指老年妇女，老妇）;seasoned man（经验丰富的人，历经沧桑的人，婉指老人）;senior citizen（高龄公民，资深公民，婉指老人

capital punishment

死刑

industrial action /industrial dispute 劳工行动/ 劳资纠纷

失业现象→underutilization(未充分利用人才)或human es underdevelopment(人力资源未充分开发)。pension(救济金)→ welfare bene一 6ts(社会福利)

poor nations（穷国）→ back nations(滞后国家), underdeveloped nations(欠发达国家), developing nations(发展中国家), emerging nations(新兴国家)； wiretapping or bugging(偷听电话或窃听)→“electronic surveillance”(电子监督)；

wiretappers(窃听者)→“ESE”(Electronic Surveillance Experts)economic crisis 经济危机→recession(经济衰退)，depression； strike（罢工）→industrial action，industrial dispute（工业上的争端）； dismiss解雇→lay off / ease out / give sb.the walking ticket

停止雇用/免职/把解雇书给某人

unemployed mother失业的母亲→ welfare mother（领取福利金的母亲）侵略战争→ international armed conflict（国际武装冲突），air attack（空袭）→ air support（空中增援），air strike（空中打击），overflight(越 界飞行)nuclear bomb(核弹)→nuclear device(核装置)；

War Department（战争部门）→Defense Department（国防部）

be defeated（战败）→light and scattered action（溃散行动），incomplete success（不圆满的胜利）；

对别国的入侵invasion →rescue mission（营救使命），wasting the enemy（消耗敌人），pacification（安抚，平息），active defense(积极防御)，preventive war(防御战争)。

Walt"(战争)→ massive exchange(大规模的交火)steal或embezzle（贪污）→They misuse public funds(滥用公共资金)

cancer(癌)→

the Big C，long illness leprosy(麻风病)→ Hansen S disease，mad(疯了)→ mentaproblem，a little confused（有点反常，神志迷乱）Blind(盲的)→ sightless，constipation(便秘)→ irregularity，crippled(残疾)→physically handicapped，disabled；

crippled(瘸子)→physically handicapped(有生理缺陷的)； disabled／the inconvenience the deaf(聋子)→imperfect hearing(听觉不完美的)，hard of hearing（耳沉）the blind(瞎子／盲人)→visually retarded(视力有障碍的)； retarded（智力迟钝的）→men tal lhandicapped(心智有缺陷的)AIDS(艾滋病)→social disease(社会疾病)Tuberculosis（肺结核)→lung trouble(肺部毛病)pneumonia（肺炎）→the old man’s friend（老年之交）

poor students（学习成绩差的学生）→below average students（低于一般水平的学生）；

stupid or lazy students（愚笨或懒惰的学生），而说→underachievers（未充分发挥出自己潜力的学生）；

poor（穷）→needy（拮据）、underprivileged（经济状况低下的）、disadvantage（处于不利地位的）；

sloppy and careless（粗心大意的人）→absent-minded（心不在焉的）； lie（撒谎）→not tell the truth（没讲实话）；

what horror!（多可怕！）→rather a nuisance!（真讨厌！）；

A fire has broken out.（失火了。）→There has been a fire situation.（出现火情。）； steal（偷）→take other people’s things without permission（未经许可拿了别人的东西）； cheat in class（课堂考试作弊）→depend on others to do his or her work（考试靠别人），

第五篇：英语禁忌语与委婉语的研究

英语专业全英原创毕业论文，是近期写作，公布的题目可以用于免费参考

最新200份英语专业全英原创毕业论文，都是近期写作，公布的题目可以用于免费参考英文电影对英语学习的影响论田纳西•威廉斯《欲望号街车》中的逃遁主义从《人与鼠》看斯坦贝克艺术风格中美学校教育和家庭教育之比较探析《奥赛罗》的三大悲剧起因非言语交际对演讲的影响D.H 劳伦斯《盲人》中的人文主义研究简•奥斯丁的婚姻观在《傲慢与偏见》中的体现相似的母爱，不同的表达——对比研究《黑孩子》和《宠儿》中的母亲形象从餐桌礼仪看中西文化差异从功能对等理论看商务合同的翻译英式英语与美式英语的拼写差异动画片《花木兰》对中国传统道德的解构和重构On the Application of Newmark’s Theory in Tourism English Translation跨文化交际中恭维语的语用失误及其文化透视A Brief Study of British Women’s Rising Status《苍蝇》的叙事艺术及悲剧主题探究Are Indians Prisoners of Their Race?-An Analysis of the Sources and Rise of National Awareness论疯女人形象对小说简爱所作贡献浅析《喜福会》中母亲们悲惨遭遇的成因关于英语课堂中教师体态语的研究“工业小说”《玛丽•巴顿》的宗教解析托尼•莫里森《宠儿》的哥特式重读文化视角下的英汉动物隐喻对比研究论《简•爱》中伯莎•梅森的疯癫从目的论角度讨论英语电影片名的翻译A Study on Error Correction in JEFC ClassroomA Miniature of Ambivalence and Self-Discovery as Reflected by Amy Tan's The Joy Luck Club浅谈体态语在小学英语教学中的作用从伊登和盖茨比之死探析美国梦破灭的必然性

《弗兰肯斯坦》中怪物身份的矛盾性

英汉委婉语跨文化对比研究

从《男孩们女孩们》看身份问题对艾丽斯•门罗文学创作的影响

An Analysis of Humor in Friend from the Point of View of the Violation of the Cooperative Principle

管窥世纪年代以前的朴素社会语言学思想

论密西西比河对马克•吐温和《哈克贝利•费恩历险记》的影响

The Transcultural Differences in the Translation of Commercial Advertisements

女性人格的双重性——从心理学的角度对比分析凯瑟琳和简爱

礼貌用语中的语用失误

English-Chinese Advertisement Translation

从信息层面探析语言翻译中的动态对等原则

浅议我国民营企业薪酬管理

英雄还是魔鬼-论亚哈船长的双重性格

An analysis of Female Images in The House on Mango Street from the Perspective of Feminism

浅析《爱玛》中女主人公的女性意识

从功能对等理论的角度看英语新闻标题中修辞的翻译

The Influence of Westward Movement on American National Character

解析《红字》中的红与黑

适者生存—解读《野性的呼唤》中的“生命的法则”

从电影《暮光之城》浅析吸血鬼文化的改变

《麦田里的守望者》中霍尔顿的性格分析

十九世纪英国女性小说中的两位灰姑娘——伊利莎白•班纳特和简•爱形象比较 53 浅析《瑞普•凡•温克尔》中的浪漫主义

浅析《了不起的盖茨比》中的象征主义

论爱丽丝·沃克《紫色》中西丽女性自我的缺失与重塑

On Aestheticism in Oscar Wilde's The Picture of Dorian Gray

小学英语课堂任务设计的研究

论尤金•奥尼尔《毛猿》中的悲剧根源

从文化视角看汉英翻译中的语篇连贯性

凯特•肖邦小说《觉醒》中的超验主义思想分析

试析《最蓝的眼睛》中佩科拉悲剧之源

中美餐桌文化差异比较研究

A Study on Problems and Strategies in Phonetic Teaching of Spoken English in JEFC 64 《游泳者》中的艺术特色

从电影《七宗罪》看‘七宗罪’与基督教传统的关系

A Survey on Self-regulated Learning of English Major

英汉色彩词的语用对比研究

浅析欧洲中世纪骑士和中国侠士精神的差异─西欧中世纪初期骑士和中国秦汉游侠 69 从民族文化心理差异角度看功能对等论在商标翻译中的运用

从功能对等理论看中西商务翻译中文化差异导致的不对等翻译

An Analysis on Shear's Personality in The Bridge on the River Kwai

A Study on Developing Autonomous Learning Ability of Junior High School Students 73 比较分析《野草在歌唱》与《倾城之恋》中女性的爱情婚姻观

《达洛维夫人》中的生死观初探

会计英语缩略词特点及翻译研究

英汉谚语中“爱”的情感隐喻对比研究

论《隐形人》中的象征主义

汉英禁忌语的对比研究

商务信函中模糊语的使用研究

关联理论视角下幽默的英汉翻译

《麦田里的守望者》的文体特色分析

英汉禁忌语对比分析

文学课程中的文化导入

“到十九号房间”的悲剧成因

对《老人与海》中主人公的性格分析

Comparison and Translation Between Chinese and English Euphemisms

A Study on Strategies of Effective Teaching in the Junior Middle School EFL Classroom 88 浅谈英语“根据”表达法

跨文化商务活动中的交际与礼仪

以实玛利是谁－－《白鲸》与康德哲学

从《悲悼三部曲》看尤金•奥尼尔对古希腊悲剧的继承性超越

从女性主义角度解读《灶神之妻》

The Heartbroken Images in the Fairy Tales of Oscar Wilde

如何运用情景教学法进行初中英语词汇教学的探讨

国际贸易往来电子邮件写作原则

An Interpretation of A Rose for Emily from the Prospective of Socialization

从功能派翻译理论的角度研究中国菜单翻译

模糊限制语的语用功能及在广告中的应用

英语抽象名词和物质名词的数概念分析

浅析公示语的翻译

论美国文学中的自然主义产生的社会文化根源

文化差异视角下的英语称谓语的翻译策略

英语谚语的民族性及其艺术特色

论反语的语用功能

跨文化交际下的中英文禁忌语的对比研究

论《格列佛游记》中的讽刺

A Comparative Study of Cultural Connotations of Yellow and Huang in English and Chinese 108 试析《啊，拓荒者》中的生态伦理观

论《紫颜色》中黑人妇女的反抗

英汉谚语的文化对比分析

文明的樊笼—解读《野性的呼唤》

Bertha Is Jane:A Psychological Analysis of Charlotte Bronte’s Jane Eyre

从谷歌和百度两大企业的管理方式看中美企业文化的差异

论英语谚语的翻译

高中英语词汇教学中文化意识的培养

鲁滨逊荒岛生存技能的分析

《达洛维夫人》死亡意识解读

功能对等理论视角下的英文歌曲汉译探究

从时间视角分析伍尔芙的《达洛卫夫人》

Cultural Differences in Business Negotiations: East and West

A Popular Form of Subtitles Translation by Fansub Group on the Internet

旅游宣传品的翻译

从社会符号学角度浅谈汉语“一”字成语翻译

从女性主义角度分析简爱的女性意识

浅析《老人与海》中人与自然的和谐之美

An Analysis on Teacher Talk in EFL Classroom Context

Interpretations of Cultural Differences in Temporal Aspect by Comparing Lin Shu’s Translation of Uncle Tom’s Cabin with Later Translator’ Versions

中西方文化差异对商务谈判的影响

中美饮食文化实体行为与非实体行为的民族差异

中美广告语言文化异同研究

《我的安东妮娅》中的文化冲突研究

论爱伦坡小说中的哥特式风格

从道德角度分析简•奥斯丁《劝导》中的女主人公安妮•艾略特

影视作品中的中英电话礼貌用语对比研究

东方主义视角下康拉德《黑暗的心脏》中西方殖民话语分析

论《太阳照常升起》中的象征主义

中美家庭价值观差异浅析

功能对等理论视角下的商务合同翻译研究

试分析《牡丹亭》与《罗密欧与朱丽叶》的爱情模式

从社会语言学的视角研究蔑视女性的词汇表达法

Gone with the Wind: From Novel to Film

汉语政治话语中的隐喻研究

英语国家国歌中爱国主义的话语建构

A Comparative Analysis of English Vocabulary Teaching between China and America at the Primary and Secondary School Level

救赎之旅—浅析《麦田里的守望者》中霍尔顿•考菲尔德的成长经历

商务英语中含蓄否定句的研究

女性哥特视角下的《蝴蝶梦》研究

超越性别的美——以《道林格雷的画像》为例

《愤怒的葡萄》中的圣经原型

从《尼克•亚当斯故事》中探析父亲情结对海明威人生观的影响

151 Cultural Influences on Business Negotiation between China and Japan

152 《哈克贝利•费恩历险记》中阶级面面观

153 论应变能力在同声传译中的应用

154 从概念隐喻看寓言的语篇连贯

155 Differences Between English and Chinese Euphemisms and Influences on Cross-cultural Communication

156 A Contrastive Study on the Religious Constituents of Chinese and Western Christians 157 从目的论看儿童文学翻译－－兼评《小王子》中英译本

158 中美企业并购中的文化整合分析

159 当代中美青年恭维言语行为对比研究

160 遗忘曲线在记忆英语词汇中的运用

161 On Moral Characters in The Picture of Dorian Gray

162 浅析《献给艾米莉的玫瑰》中渐渐消失的玫瑰

163 从认知语言学的视角下浅析隐喻和换喻的异同

164 战争、归乡、爱情—《冷山》的多元主题研究

165 从生态中心主义角度分析康拉德《黑暗的心》

166 环境与命运——从自然主义的角度分析《美国悲剧》中的克莱德

167 中西文化差异在家庭教育中的体现

168 狄更斯《双城记》中的人道主义思想

169 《了不起的盖茨比》中女性形象分析

170 中美时间观差异对跨文化交际的影响

171 试论《武林外传》与《老友记》中的中美文化差异

172 论《爱玛》中简•奥斯丁的女性主义观

173 艾米丽·狄金森的诗歌主题分析

174 男女生英语学习差异比较研究

175 《雾都孤儿》中的童话模式解读

176 透过电影《假结婚》看中美传统婚姻习俗差异

177 当爱遇见不爱——浅析《马可百万》中的三对情爱关系

178 H.G.威尔斯科幻小说中的科学措辞研究

179 美国个人主义与中国集体主义的比较

180 浅析模糊语在商务谈判中的应用

181 功能对等与商务信函翻译

182 华裔美国文学中的幽灵叙事探析

183 从《劝导》看简•奥斯汀创作思想的发展

184 从《推销员之死》看消费主义时代美国梦的破灭

185 On the Factors Leading to Different Destinies of Rhett Butler and Ashley Wilkes in Gone with the Wind

186 《永别了，武器》的存在主义解读

187 双重文化下的文化选择——解析电影《刮痧》中中国移民的文化身份危机

188 论女性主义对翻译标准的影响

189 英语中法语外来词对英国文化的影响

190 从文化的角度看颜色词在英汉两种语言中差异

191 论《在另一个国度里》中的象征主义

192 “生活大爆炸”中美式幽默的翻译方法研究

193 论模糊语言在广告英语中的功能与运用

194 国际商务谈判中的文化差异分析

195 活动教学法在农村初中英语教学中的应用——以新安中学为例

196 《了不起的盖茨比》的叙事技巧分析

197 论旅游广告的显影性

198 Family Values in Desperate Housewives

199 《汤姆叔叔的小屋》中伊万杰琳形象分析

200 浅析《睡谷传奇》中的浪漫主义