语用学中的面子理论和礼貌原则的应用

第一篇：语用学中的面子理论和礼貌原则的应用

摘要

中国饮食文化博大精深、源远流长是来华外宾了解中国文化的一个重要窗口。菜铺上的菜名对人们有着很好的指示作用,它传神的表达出菜本身的特点和美好寓意。与此同时,随着我国日益与国际接轨,中国菜越来越受外国友人的亲睐。

但由于中国饮食烹饪方式多样，文化内涵丰富，相关专业性强，因而容易导致中国菜名的英译错误。同样的，英语广告是一种跨文化的交际活动，在翻译过程中，必须考虑到两种不同文化形成的语用原则。语用学在实际应用中涉及多方面的理论，包括面子理论和礼貌原则。

关键词：中国菜名;面子理论;礼貌原则

Abstract

Chinese diet culture, with a long history, is rich and profound, which has become an important window for the foreign guests to get acquainted with Chinese culture.Chinese dish names on the menu have a good indication for people.It vividly expresses the characteristics of the food and good moral.At the same time, as our country increasingly has interfaced with international, Chinese dishes are becoming more and more popular among foreigners.However, different Chinese food cooking ways, rich food culture and professional strong bring about difficulties for translation.The applications of pragmatics including face theory and politeness principle in the area of diet.Samely,advertisement is an cross-cultural activity ,so we should consider the pragmatics principle both in Chinese and English.Pragmatics involves various aspects of theroies,including face theory and politeness principle.Keywords: Chinese dish names;Face theory;Politeness principle

The application of pragmatics in advertisement

英语广告advertisement一词产生自拉丁语 advertere，意为“唤起大众对某种事物的注意，并诱于一定的方向所使用的一种手段。”而成功的商业广告是则是通过文字信息、非文字信息(如音乐、图片等)或图文并茂的方式来吸引消费者以期实现销售目的。然而,在广告所采取的各种形式中,语言一直是最重要和最根本的。众所周知，广告翻译是一种跨文化的交际活动，在这个翻译过程中，必须考虑到两种不同文化形成的语用原则。如果翻译准确，则可使持两种语言的人成功地实现交际，达到商标的目的。反之，就容易

产生失误。

一、避免语用失误广告翻译的几点注意

1、跨文化语用失误（Cross-cultural pragmatic failure）

（1）品牌的翻译避免直译上海产“白翎”钢笔，其英译为“White Feather”,在英语国家无人问津,其原因在于英语中有句成语“to show the white feather”意思是“临阵逃脱”,而“白色羽毛”象征的是“胆小鬼”。其他例子还有: Dragon(龙牌卷闸), Fang Fang(芳芳牌唇膏)，Dabao SOD(大宝SOD 蜜)，Golden Cock(金鸡牌鞋油)等等。

（2）“龙” 的英语对应词“dragon”被定义为“a large fierce imaginary animal, usually rep resented with wings, a long tail and fire coming out of its mouth”。见到这个字，英美顾客只会联想到“邪恶”“、凶猛”、“残暴”、“可怕”。试想谁会去购买这么一件“可怕”、“凶神恶煞”般的商品呢?

(3)避免中文广告中口号性的翻译

不同国家的文化差异是国际广告中不容忽视的大问题。不同的语言体系有不同的表达习惯,盲目套用必将阻碍原句语用意义的传递。“高高兴兴上班去,安安全全回家来”这条标语是在中国非常常见，而且朗朗上口，被公众用于警示交通安全的重要性。在翻译成英文诗，若套用汉语结构形式,按字面意思译为:Go to work happily and come back safely!则不符合英语表达方式,使西语文化中人感到困惑。其实用“Drive carefully!”或“Good luck!”等简单的释义，就可以清晰表达了。

2、言语行为理论speech act theory 比如说对于一则公益广告的翻译“Thieves love crowds;Watch your wallet, bag, camera„”,如果我们直接套用其表达方式译为“小偷喜欢拥挤的人群,注意你的钱包,手提包,照相机„„”,就会使汉语读者感觉有些古怪。因为英语中是以提醒顾客从自身保护入手，所以可以简单译为“谨防小偷”。

3、广告翻译应注意其禁忌tabbo

无论任何国家、民族都存在许多这样那样的忌讳,我们应给予必要的尊重,这也同时会影响到出口商品的销路问题。例如,英国人不喜欢大象、颇喜欢熊猫;意大利人和西班牙人喜欢玫瑰花,忌用菊花;比利时人最忌蓝色,认为蓝色是不吉利的凶兆;土耳其人绝对禁止用花色物品布置房间和客厅,他们认为花色是凶兆;日本人忌绿色,而印度人却喜爱绿色。为了做好国际广告的翻译工作,为产品在国际市场上搞好促销就不得不特别留意并做到熟悉有关民族的文化常识。

二、结语

英汉广告的翻译不仅要求译者有着扎实的双语功底，而且还要知晓广告语言的特点。广告翻译中的语用失误，严重影响着交际效果和产品的销量。因此，中国的产品要走向世界一定要了解异国文化，在翻译过程中认真思考和积极探索的问题，方法可以多样化，手段可以现代化，减少语用失误，提高语用能力。

Contents

摘要....................错误！未定义书签。Abstract....................错误！未定义书签。Contents..................错误！未定义书签。1 Introduction............错误！未定义书签。2 Names of Chinese dishes错误！未定义书

签。

2.1 Flavor snacks....................................................................2

2.2 With good things or image scene named Chinese dishes.2

2.3 Others...............................................................................3 The application of pragmatics in advertisement........................................4 4 Politeness Principle and Face Theory

...............................................................7 5 Bibliography........................................9 Introduction China has a long history of several thousand years formed colorful food culture.Delicious food match good reputation is one of the distinctive features of Chinese food culture.The dishes are concentrated the

profound

Chinese

cuisine

and

local characteristics, which reflect the Chinese long history and splendid culture of food.Chinese dishes pay attention to color, aroma, taste and shape and stress lucky.It witnesses the China’s ancient civilization.It is the national history and culture in miniature.With China’s rapid economic development, tourists from the whole world, more and more Chinese food culture has been widely disseminated.At the appointed time, the Chinese diet culture steps.How will China’s distinctive image and ethnic Characteristics into translation of Chinese dishes is extremely important.This article, starting from the typical naming of Chinese dishes, shows the translation of Chinese dishes.Names of Chinese Dishes 2.1 Flavor dishes As a country with a long history, China has a lot of unique food.For those dishes accepted by foreigners and with Chinese characteristics, we can use Pinyin for the purposes of promoting Chinese culture.For example: Deep fried twisted dough stick(油条—Youtiao)Dumpling stuffed with vegetable and meat fillings(饺子—Jiaozi)Dumplings made of sticky rice flour served in soup(汤圆—Tangyuan)

Steamed dumplings with pork and sticky rice filling(烧卖—Shaomai)

2.2 With good things and imagine scenes named Chinese dishes Some Chinese dishes need to be remained the better image and flavor.For example: Broiled chicken cutlets with turtle(霸王别姬)Shrimp and egg soup(金玉满堂)

2.3 Others Apart from the above, there are many naming.Many dishes are named cooking method and main ingredient.There are many examples of error and correct :

Husband and wife’s lungs lice(夫妻肺片)Pork lungs in chili sauce

Four glad meat balls(四喜丸子)

Meat Balls Braised with Brown sauce

Chicken without sexual life（童子鸡）

Spring chicken

Government abuse chicken(宫保鸡丁)Stir-fried chicken with dried red pepper

Fried lion’s head（红烧狮子头）Stewed Pork ball in brown sauce Politeness Principle and Face Theory

politeness principle 礼貌原则

The politeness principle is a series of maxims, which Geoff Leech has proposed as a way of explaining how politeness operates in conversational exchanges.Leech defines politeness as forms of behavior that establish and maintain comity.That is the ability of participants in a social interaction to engage in interaction in an atmosphere of relative harmony.Leech's maxims Tact maxim得体(in directives [impositives] and commissives): minimise cost to other;[maximise benefit to other]

Generosity maxim慷慨(in directives and commissives): minimise benefit to self;[maximise cost to self]

Approbation maxim赞誉(in expressives and representatives [assertives]): minimise dispraise of other;[maximise praise of other]

Modesty maxim谦虚(in expressives and representatives): minimise praise of self;[maximise dispraise of self]

Agreement maxim一致(in representatives): minimise disagreement between self and other;[maximise agreement between self and other]

Sympathy maxim同情(in representatives): minimise antipathy between self and other;[maximise sympathy between self and other]

The face theory面子理论

“Face”(as in “lose face”)refers to a speaker's sense of linguistic and social identity.Any speech act may impose on this sense, and is therefore face threatening.And speakers have strategies for lessening the threat.Positive politeness means being complimentary and gracious to the addressee(but if this is overdone, the speaker may alienate the other party).Negative politeness is found in ways of mitigating the imposition.Hedging: Er, could you, er, perhaps, close the, um , window? Pessimism: I don't suppose you could close the window, could you?

Indicating deference: Excuse me, sir, would you mind if I asked you to close the window?

Apologizing: I'm terribly sorry to put you out, but could you close the window?

Impersonalizing: The management requires all windows to be closed.Stewed Meatball with Brown Sauce is a famous dish.But some people translate into Fried lion’s head.What have you imaged if you are a foreigner when you see the name? As a king in the forest, if the lion is cooked in this way and appeared on the table, we will of course think China is a rule country.In fact, it is a traditional Chinese dish, which is famous for its head.The lion is the symbol of good wishes.If we translate like that, we must be laughed.There is many applications of face theory and politeness principle.Some examples which borrow from the name of food are used to protect people’s faces.For instance, if somebody said “I have eaten stir fried squid”, that may means that she did eat it;or she got fired.Similarly, “Fried shredded pork with bamboo shoots” can be used when he/she was kicked his/her ass by whip.Leech, G.N.Principles of Pragmatics [M].London: Longman

第二篇：礼貌原则在口译中的应用

Introduction

Along with the trend of economic globalization and cultural diversification, communication among people from different countries and different cultures is more frequent and important.Interpreters are enjoying a constantly improved position in international communication, acting as the bridge which make people of different languages and backgrounds connected.Gradually, more elements should be considered in interpretation, especially keeping the communications smooth by using polite expression.In this case, the study of application of politeness communicative principle in interpretation will bring enlightenment to the future work.As we all know, interpretation is a kind of hard and complex job.Politeness communicative principle is used to research communicative conversation, so it also can be applied into interpretation which can be seen as a special conversation.However, interpretation is a study with a short history, which needs more help from other fields.Nowadays, the study of interpretation is concentrated on language training, interpreting skills, exams and so on.Few people pay attention to the application of politeness communicative principle in interpretation.Thus, politeness communicative principle in interpretation is so important and deserves more attention.Except for the introduction and conclusion, this thesis is composed of three parts.Part one gives a view of related theories;Part two is main part of the paper, which includes preconditions for using politeness communicative principle and feasibility of the adoption of politeness communicative principle;Part three is the enlightenment to interpretation after the research, including strategies for applying politeness 1

communicative principle in interpretation.2

1.Literature review of interpretation and politeness communicative principle In 1978, English scholars Brown & Levinson wrote an article “Universals in Language Usage: Politeness Phenomena”.Soon after that, Leech delivered his six criteria of politeness in 1983.Since then, there are some researches about the two fields of politeness communicative principle and interpretation respectively.1.1 General review of interpretation In order to identify the relationship between interpretation and politeness communicative principle, it is necessary to review related interpretation theory at home and abroad.1.1.1 Definition of interpretation Interpretation is a form of translation, converting one language to anther so that the target language could convey the intended message in source language.Interpretation essentially is “an oral translation of oral discourse”(Gile, 1995: 1)and “ an extempore oral reproduction, in one language of what is said in another language ”(Zhong, 1999: 1).Interpretation is a form of translation in which a first and final rendition in another language is produced on the basis of a one-time presentation of an utterance in a source language(Pochhacker 2004: 11).Compared to translation which is used when the immediate result of the work is a written text, interpretation has its outstanding characteristics as being used when the immediate result is a speech reproduced orally in a language other than that spoken by the original speaker.That is to say, interpretation is a communicative process which faithfully and orally transfer the information from one language to another.3

1.1.2 Type and development of interpretation Interpretation consists of consecutive interpretation, simultaneous interpretation and whispering interpretation, among which consecutive interpretation is the most popular and widely used.In consecutive interpretation, the interpreter listens to a speech segment and then delivers the whole segment in the target language.While in simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter conveys the meaning to the listeners while listening.In whispering interpretation, the interpreter is for speeches with one to two foreign listeners or as accompanying interpreter for your international guests outside the actual event programme.Lacking of historical record makes it difficult to find the exact date when interpretation got into shape.And interpretation came into being and developed gradually when people speaking different languages started to communicate with each other.In the past, there were middlemen, who helped people speaking different languages communicate with each other.They were usually immigrants who knew two or more languages and also called dragoman, but these people were not trained professionally.When people speaking different languages started to communicate with each other more frequently, quick and effective interpretation was in urgent.Interpreter becomes an international profession in the First World War.It is in the Paris Peace Conference interpreters who have been trained professionally to meet the requirements of the conference.After that, interpretation has become a popular profession in the world.4

1.2 An overview of politeness communicative principle theories Politeness as a social phenomenon can be observed in all languages and cultures, and it has long been an important object of study in linguistics.As a common social phenomenon, politeness is not only an universal virtue but also a popular way to realize effective communication.1.2.1 A general view of politeness communicative principle Politeness is an universal phenomenon in society.However, different linguists and scholars give different explanations of politeness.In western countries, Leech says that there exists a set of maxims that guide and constrain the conversation between people, he suggests that cooperative principle should be expanded because Gricean’s cooperative principle can not sufficiently explain why people so often convey meaning indirectly.It is for this reason that politeness principle can be seen not just as another principle to be added to cooperative principle, but as its necessary complement.Leech introduces the politeness principle which runs as follows: Minimize the expression of impolite beliefs, Maximize the expression of polite belief.1.2.2 Politeness theories at home and abroad

Many scholars have made great contribution to the study of politeness theories.Among them, Leech and Gu Yueguo play a significant role, which serves as the foundation of the politeness research for other scholars.Politeness communicative principle is proposed to explain how politeness operates in conversational exchange, which has a series of maxims.Leech defines politeness as forms of behavior that establish and maintain comity.That is the ability of participants in a social interaction 5

to engage in interaction in an atmosphere of relative harmony.Leech specifies degree of politeness principle which are the means required in a certain situation.(1)The Tact Maxim Minimize the expression of beliefs which imply cost to other, maximize the expression of beliefs which imply benefit to other.(2)The Approbation Maxim Minimize the expression of beliefs which express dispraise of other;Maximize the expression of beliefs which express approval of other.(3)The Generosity Maxim

Minimize the expression of benefit to itself;Maximize the expression of cost to itself.(4)The Modesty Maxim

Minimize the expression of praise of self;Maximize the expression of dispraise of self.(5)The Agreement Maxim

Minimize the expression of disagreement between self and other;Maximize the expression of agreement between self and other.(Leech, 1999:20-21)While in China, the real study of politeness principle only began in the 1980s when pragmatics was introduced into China.The most influential figure in this area is Gu Yueguo.He puts forward his own set of politeness maxims in two thesis “Politeness Pragmatics and Culture” and “Politeness phenomena in modern China”.His theory has distinctive characteristics of Chinese culture.He proposed four basic 6

notions: respectfulness, modesty, attitudinal warmth and refinement.According to Gu, politeness principle includes five maxims:“Self-denigration and Respecting Maxim, Addressing Maxim, Elegancy Maxim, Conforming Maxim, Virtue, Words and Behavior Maxim.”(Gu, 2005: 10)

1.3 The relationship between politeness communicative principle and interpretation

Interpretation is understood as the mental process and communicative act of reproducing orally in a target language what a speaker is expressing in a source language.(Zhong, 1999: 1)

From the above explanation, it is easy to find that interpretation is a kind of special conversation.The success of this conversation needs a media of interpreter.During interpretation, interpreters need to cooperate both with the speakers and the listeners, and they also need to control the atmosphere of this conversation and keep the conversation polite.Besides, politeness communicative principle is used to research communicative conversation, so it can be applied into interpretation.So far, there have been some studies related to relationship between politeness communicative principle and interpretation, especially in recent years.For instance, Guo Yingzhen has published the issue of “Politeness Principle and Interpreting” by analyzing politeness principle and nine types of politeness in interpretation.She says, “ Based on the politeness principle and the experience of the author’s practice during past years, the honorific expressions in the process of interpreting can be divided into and applied to in nine different situations, namely, greetings, request, inquiry, 7

complaint and regret, advice, apology, imperative, and agreement”(Guo, 2004: 15).She tries to encourage readers to use honorific expressions in interpretation so that his or her own interpreting ability could be reflected.Wang Xiaowen discusses the complementarily and contradiction between cooperative principle and politeness principle, she mentions about the importance of politeness communicative principle in interpretation, “As two important theories in the field of pragmatics, Grice’s cooperative principle and Leech’s politeness principle both have great insights on interpreting with latter complimentary to the former.The approbation of the two principles to interpreting can effectively promote the successful cooperation between the two parties of communication.”(Wang, 2006: 18)1.4 Previous studies on interpreter’s subjectivity

With the increasing attention paid on the role of interpreters, the subjectivity of which arouse interest of scholars.Qiu Jixin observes the translator’s subjectivity and its restrictions by introducing thought of foreign scholars and analysis of translation.He says, “As a subject, translators can carry out their subjectivity during the translating process.Yet, the subjectivity must be restricted by certain factors.The two are combined closely with each other.”(Qiu, 2004: 12)Later, Hon Linping and Jiang Siping write complete conclusion on the study of the issue, on the subjectivity studies over the past ten years.They talk about the root, developing stages, some limitations and problems of all the previous researches.In general, just as what they state in the review,“the concept of interpreter’s subjectivity has gained more and more attention in China’s translation 8

study over the last decades.Analyzing the studies of the translator’s subjectivity in China from 1996 to 2005, the scholars explore the positive roles and limitations that the new trend could play in translation, the authors maintain that the translator’s turn will prevail in the 21 century.”(Hon & Jiang, 2006)These people do some research on the interpreter’s subjectivity and leave some evidence for others.Lv Binghua, from the perspective of subjectivity, proposed three norms, self-restriction on expressions and arrangement of message.It is a generalization of the forms of interpreter’s subjectivity from a rather macro perspective.Few scholars concern about the subjectivity of interpreters although the issue of interpreter’s subjectivity has been studied for years.That’s the greatest regret in the study of the issue.2.Feasibility and strategies for interpreters to apply politeness communicative principle in interpreting

From the above analysis of the research conducted by many linguists and interpretation theorists, it is easy to find that politeness communicative principle plays an important role in interpretation.No matter whether politeness communicative principle in western countries or in China, the essence is similar only with different emphasis.This chapter, which is based on the analysis of politeness communicative principle, explains the feasibility for interpreters and explores the instructive function of the politeness communicative principle in interpretation.2.1 Possible steps to deal with subjectivity

When politeness communicative principle is used in interpretation, at least two 9

things should be noticed.Firstly, it is possible to deal with subjectivity when interpret.Secondly, it is possible to apply politeness communicative principle in interpretation.Actually the process of interpreting can be divided into two parts: preparation before real interpretation and the actual interpretation process.“Translation procedure involves far more than step-by-step procedures for producing a translation from a source text.”(Nida, 2004: 131)In the following part, the author will discuss when and how interpreters can manipulate with subjectivity.2.1.1 Preparation before interpreting

It is well-known that enough preparation work is a key factor of a successful interpretation.Many things can be done before interpretation and will be later used.Generally speaking, prepared knowledge includes the glossary items, background knowledge of a certain field, understanding of the speaker’s culture and so on.In order to specify the above statement and make it clear and easy to be understood, the author sets an example in the following part.For example, There is going to be an English speaker talking about technology in clone.Preparation work will be done differently.Interpreter A may know well about clone, he masters all the background information and latest researches in the field.But he has no idea about the speaker except that the speaker is from England.In this situation, interpreter A may prepare in following steps.Firstly, since he knows well about the issue, the preparation of background knowledge may be very simple.Secondly, since the speaker comes from England, which needs to know more 10

about clone in England.Therefore, A should review the clone in England.Thirdly, given that A knows nothing about the speaker, he should seek a way to get familiar with culture and courtesy in England.Last but not least, A should know more about the situation whether in a conference or casual dialogue.Imagine another quite different situation: If interpreter B knows the English speaker very well.However, he knows little about clone, let alone clone in England.In this case, B would seek for different methods to deal with, which is quite different from A.Instead of paying much attention to the background of the speaker, B has to spend much time learning about clone, especially in England.Therefore, he had better read some scientific books and surf the Internet to gain more information about clone.Above all, it is easy to find that different interpreters choose different ways to prepare based on their own conditions though given the same situation.That leads to the possibility of choosing for interpreters in this process.2.1.2 Understanding of original speech Understanding of Original Speech is a vital process during the interpretation.If one can’t grasp the original meaning, he may mislead the intention of the speaker, even worse, spoil the whole conversation.Basil Hatim and Ian Mason once wrote in their book Discourse and the Translator, “The less evaluative the text is, the less need there will be for its structure to be modified;Conversely, the more culture-bound a text is, the more scope there may be for modification.The less culture-bound a text is, the less need there will be for its structure to be modified;Conversely, the more culture-bound a text is, the more 11

space there may be for modification.”(Hatim & Mason,1999: 3)In China, Qi Weiyan stated in her paper, “Translator’s understandings and opinions are always influenced by times, nation, language, history, custom, culture and so on.Thus, the subjectivity of translators is strongly needed because of the differences in these factors in source text, the disparity between source and target language, and the strong demonstration of times, national feature and culture capital in the source text”.(Qi, 2003)In the following, the author would show that interpreters may have different understandings towards the same original sentence.For example, It’s my great honor to be invited as your friend.Interpreter1: 作为朋友收到邀请，我十分荣幸。Interpreter2: 我十分荣幸以朋友的身份收到邀请。

In this case, the emphasis of the interpreter is different.Interpreter 1 strengthens the meaning of “great honor to be invited” with thanks.While interpreter 2 highlights the words “as your friend” to focus on the true friendship.Therefore, the hidden meaning of the sentence is “The friendship between us is precious to me and I really appreciate it”.Both of the understandings are right if the speaker expresses the sentence without the paragraph.Still, differences between two interpreters don’t influence the quality of interpretation.It can be concluded from the above example that one sentence may lead to different understandings and the interpreters can choose their own understanding according to the atmosphere of situation, the context or the relevant information.This clearly proves that interpreters are able to manipulate during the understanding 12

process and sometimes the subjective choosing may even be of great significance.2.1.3 Production of the interpreted version

As Qi Weiyan stated in her paper, “Translator’s subjectivity can be reflected not only from the comprehension of the source language, but also from the choosing ways of expressions.If we put it in another way, production of the translators gradually form their own translation styles, characteristics and features.There is a close relation between them.In a certain period and under certain historical and cultural background, translators form their own thoughts and senses of values, tastes and interests, as well as translation abilities, which are shown in his translation version.”(Qi, 2003)From the translation theory above, it is aware that translator’s subjectivity is what she talks about.It is the same with interpreters,too.Being an excellent interpreter requires abundant interpreting experiences, careful observation and daily practices.The author will give an example to illustrate this point.For example, Shenzhen today is quite different from what she looked like twenty years ago.Version1: 今日的深圳不同于20年前的深圳。

Version2: 今日的深圳比20年前不可同日而语。

When you talk about Shenzhen’s development and her achievement with a foreigner, such a sentence can be seen very often.In a real interpreting case, it is common that both of the translation versions are acceptable, with no mistake or misunderstanding between communicative parties.However, the two versions have obvious difference.Version 2 gives a more brief idea of difference in Shenzhen which 13

strikes the speaker most.While version 1 is close to literal meaning of the original sentence.The two versions have difference in ways of expression and the author believes that it can reflect the interpreter’s characteristics in some degree.Although the original sentence is a kind of praise of Shenzhen’s great development, the sentence itself does not show that Shenzhen becomes stronger or prosperous.It can be predicted that in terms of characteristics, version 2 is more direct than version 1 since he or she wishes to express the intended meaning in an obvious way.2.2 Feasibility of the adoption of politeness communicative principle in interpretation Since it has been proved that politeness communicative principle is one of the principles that should be adopted in our daily conversation.Adopting politeness communicative principle in interpretation will help create harmonious atmosphere and enable the exchange of words and thoughts to be smooth and successful.As we all know, interpretation is a kind of exchanging and talking since two communicative parties cannot communicate directly because of language and culture differences.Thus, an interpreter is needed to exchange words between the two communicative parties, which is a very important job in such kind of indirect interaction.During interpreting, a sense of being polite is badly needed.In this part, the author will talk about the application of politeness communicative principle and set examples to prove the feasibility to interpretation.The process of application of politeness communicative principle can be divided into three different forms, namely choosing of words, choosing of sentences and choosing 14

ways of expressions.2.2.1 Choosing of words Interpreters may have different words that can be used during interpretation, while they have possibility to choose proper words from them.Therefore, interpreters can find the most polite words under the direction of politeness communicative principle.First of all, some words that can help the interpreters are discussed.Firstly, application of model verbs in politeness communicative principle will be discussed.When we choose proper language form to express politely, some appropriate model verbs can make the sentence like an euphemism.In our conversations or dialogues, these model verbs are easy to find here and there, such as “should, shall, would, could”.In order to express the meaning more clearly, the author will set two examples in the following.When we put the model verb “could” ahead in a question sentence, it is a euphemistic expression.For example, “could you tell me about the story?” The word “would” can be used in a euphemistic expression, especially in the request and suggested sentence.For instance,“I would be a shame to disturb your dialogue.” “would you like to pass the book to me ?”and “wouldn’t it be better to stop it right now?” All the sentences above are more polite than those do not use model verb.Secondly, tense of verb deserves our attention.In a sentence, past tense is another way to express request politely, while past continuous tense is more polite than past tense.For instance,“Sorry, I did it again”.This sentence means this is not the first time he made mistake, and the intended meaning of which is he or she really feels 15

regrettable about what he or she does.From above, it can be found that past tense can also express apologize.Thirdly, some words expressing possibility could also express politeness.when we talk something about suggestion, advice and criticism, we could use “maybe” “perhaps” and “possible”.”Possibly” mainly used in a request sentence, if it is used together with model verbs “can” and “could”, it would be more polite.When we give an invitation, suggestion, requirement and criticism, we can use the word “wonder”, because it is also a euphemism.Another example, the word “quite” can be used in the negative sentence to express politeness:“That’s not quite what I said, you know.” Some examples related to the three pairs of maxims will be discussed next.2.2.1.1 Tact maxim and generosity maxim

From the brief introduction of maxim before, it is easy to know that these two maxims are intended to maxim of benefit to others and cost to oneself.The typical case is as followed.“This is a brief introduction brochure of our school”

Version1: 这是我校的宣传册。

Version2: 这是美国某大学的宣传册。

According to Tack and Generosity Maxim, it is polite to maximize the listener’s benefit even cost the speaker more.In this situation, since the interpreter is the direct speaker to the Chinese students attending an exhibition, the interpreter has to interpret the complete meaning while maximize benefit for the listener.Based on the given situation, version2 is more proper than version1, not only for 16

sake of better advertisement of the school, but also help the listener leave a deep impression of this school, which is different from other schools they heard before.From this point of view, the choosing of version “美国某大学” rather than “我校” realizes the minimization of other’s cost.2.2.1.2 Approbation maxim and modesty maxim

These two maxims demand maximization of praise of others and of dispraise to oneself.The following is an example:

“我们产品的质量比你方更好。”

Version1: Our product’s quality is better than yours.Version2: It seems that our product’s quality is better than yours.In this case, version2 doesn’t maximize praise of listeners and dispraise of him or her.The speaker states the meaning of “better than you”, which is going to cause unhappy feelings to the listeners.2.2.1.3 Agreement maxim and sympathy maxim Agreement Maxim and Sympathy Maxim demand maximization of agreement between oneself and others.An example is as followed:

你同意我的想法吗？

Not really.Version1: Do you agree with me?

我不同意。

Version2: Do you agree with me?

我们的想法可能有些出入。

This is a kind of “agree-or-not” sentence.Agreement should be given based on the Agreement and Sympathy Maxim.Therefore, when the interpreter chooses the expression “有些出入” instead of “不同意”.The atmosphere is more polite and harmonious.2.2.2 Choosing of sentences

Interpreters may have different sentences that come into mind during interpretation, while they have possibility to choose the most suitable one from them.As a result, interpreters can find the most polite one under the direction of politeness communicative principle.2.2.2.1 Tack maxim and generosity maxim Two conclusions can be drawn from these maxims.Firstly, offering is more polite than request in an imperative sentence.Secondly, politeness communicative principle in language can be classified into various degrees because more indirect expressions give listeners more freedom to choose what they want.If a sentence is delivered in a more indirect way, it would be more polite.Example1, Answer the phone.I want you to answer the phone.Will you answer the phone?

Can you answer the phone?

Would you mind answering the phone?

Could you possibly answer the phone?

Example 2, Call a taxi for me.18

I want you to call a taxi for me.Will you call a taxi for me?

Would you mind calling a taxi for me? In each example, the last one is the most polite because it gives the listener more opportunity to refuse.It is successful to minimize the cost to others and maximize benefit to others.More examples can be found at the beginning of a press conference.In order to keep the meeting going quietly, the host would say to the reporter just as “请各位与会人员关闭手机”.Under this circumstance, interpreters have these choices:“Turn off the cell phone.” “Can you turn off the cell phone?” or “Can I probably ask you to turn off the cell phone?”.Among them, the degree of being polite is deeper and deeper, then the last one is the most polite.In order to show politeness, interpreters usually express ideas in a mild and roundabout way.For example, when disagreeing with somebody, one would say,“I don’t think you are right” rather than“you are wrong”.Another example“You don’t seem to understand” instead of “You don’t know” so directly.2.2.2.2 Approbation maxim and modesty maxim

These two maxims demand maximization of praise of others and of dispraise to oneself.They contain two aspects and the first is “negative praise” which means saying something good to somebody instead of criticizing others.An example is followed,“Do you like my skirt?” “Well, yes.But it’s not my favorite.” Although B does not like A’s skirt, he expresses his feelings in a polite way.The second type is “exaggerated praise”, which is common in interpretation from Chinese to English

because English speakers like to exaggerate their feelings, while Chinese are more implicit in comparison.Here is an example: after a party, guests coming from China say to the host,“谢谢你的邀请，我们度过了一个愉快的夜晚。” Interpreter can express like this,“Thank you so much for inviting us, we had a wonderful night”.In this version “so much” is an exaggerated word.Another example is, when praising others, one usually addresses in this way, ”What a beautiful house!” or “What a cute boy”.Another example,“你觉得我们有机会合作这个项目么？”

Hopefully, let’s wait and see.Version1: Is there any possibility for us to cooperate with each other on the project?

希望可以，让我们边走边看。

Version2: Is there any possibility for us to cooperate with each other on this project?

希望能有这个合作机会，让我们边走边看。

Based on Approbation and Modesty Maxim, it is polite for the interpreter to maximize praise of the Chinese party.The Chinese party asks the question about the cooperation possibility in this situation.For some reasons, Without exact comment on the possibility, the foreigner gives an ambiguous answer to the question.Thus, the second version is recommended.2.2.2.3 Agreement maxim and sympathy maxim

These two maxims demand maximization of agreement between oneself and 20

others.English speakers usually express disagreement in this way:“sorry”or“Excuse me”.For instance,A says,“I like these pictures, they are beautiful”.Then B says “Well, I don’t have any eye for beauty, I’m afraid”.From this example, it is easy to see that although B does not agree with A, he does not express that in a direct way, which not only decreases the conflict between them, but also increases the accordance with the speaker.That is to say, in order to make the listener happier, good details should be talked.For instance,“That was the great Oscar for John” and “That was the great news about John”.The first sentence brings more happiness to the listener.On the contrary, when we talk about some sad news, try to say some vague words instead of details.In western culture, the expression of “death” is a typical one.For example,“be asleep in the arms of God”“be taken to paradise and go to heaven”.Another example,“I was sorry to hear about your husband” is more polite than “I was sorry to hear about your husband’s death”.2.2.3 Choosing of expressions

Choosing of expressions means that during interpreting, an interpreter is likely to choose different ways to express the idea.Among these choices, he or she would find the most polite one according to politeness communicative principle, which includes the changing of sentence structure or custom of expression in different languages.The author would illustrate the point in following aspects.2.2.3.1 Tack maxim and generosity maxim

Here is an example to show the expression choices under the direction of these two maxims.21

你看过那份计划了吗？

真不好意思，我昨天去看父母了。

Version1: Sorry, I went to visit my parents yesterday.Version2: Sorry, I haven’t seen it though, since I went to visit my parents yesterday.In this situation, the hidden meaning of Chinese speaker is that he hasn’t looked into the proposal yet.According to Chinese culture, the reason is given at first.However, person asks the question in order to know whether the proposal is seen though or not.Thus, in order to show respect to the leader, he or she had better choose the latter one to give the direct answer first and if time permits, giving reasons in a simple way.In this way, the modest attitude of speaker can be clearly reflected and thus gaining opinion of Chinese audience.2.2.3.2 Approbation maxim and modesty maxim Here is an example to show the expression choices under the direction of these two maxims.That is all my speech, If you have any question concerning my speech, welcome.Version1: 我的演讲完毕，有问题可以问我。

Version2: 我的演讲完毕，如有问题，欢迎随时提问。

The original sentence is a traditional English way of expression with no offence.However, the translated version1 may seem a bit rude to the audience in China.Thus, although violating the literal meaning of the original words, interpreters maybe choose the latter one to show politeness and create a harmonious atmosphere.22

2.2.3.3 Agreement maxim and sympathy maxim

Under the direction of these two maxims, the author will list an example:

Do you agree with our arrangement?

Yes, the transportation and accommodation are great.Version1: 是的，交通和住宿都不错。

Version2: 安排的很好，尤其是住宿和交通。

In order to be polite, version2 chooses the expression “安排的很好”，which is not heightened in the original words.The change of expression adds the degree of agreement and sounds more agreeable than just saying“是的”.Therefore, the listener will be glad to your interpretation.3 Strategies for applying politeness communicative principle in interpretation

Since a great many researches have been done on the strategies whenever concerning politeness or subjectivity, the author is going to mention three of them simply.There are substitution when the speaker does not mention, treason when the speaker does mention but not polite to the audience and omission to name just a few.3.1 Substitution Interpretation needs substitution sometimes.Since it has already been proved that interpreter is able to cope with subjectivity, substitution cannot be avoided because of different languages, backgrounds, styles and so on.When comes to politeness communicative principle, substitution can be utilized in following: The key point of Tack and Generosity maxims is to reduce the cost of others.In some cases, people are not willing to talk about death, disease, body part and so on.23

Instead, they would use indirect words replacing them.For instance, “big C” stands for “cancer” “mentally handicapped” replaces “retarded”, “psychiatric hospital” rather than “mental hospital”.Concerning about unemployment, they would use the words: “unwaged, between jobs”.It’s good for one to try hard to agree with others,if not that matters, and it is the key issue of Agreement and Sympathy maxims.When one agrees with the other but he or she omits the words like “yes” or “sure” and directly continue the topic.On such occasions, it is greater if the interpreter say like “of course” or “definitely” to emphasize the agreement.Substitution can be found quite often in opening and end of speeches, informal lectures and interviews, which allows to establish harmonious atmosphere without influencing the content or final result.3.2 Treason In some occasions, if we translate the sentences literary, it would cause misunderstanding due to different cultural backgrounds.As bridge of communication, it is interpreter’s responsibility to promote better interactions, even sometimes not being loyalty to the original words.In order to maximize praise of others and minimize praise to oneself, interpreters may sometimes behave modest on behalf of the speaker.Such kind of situation can be found when communicative parties come from different cultural backgrounds.For instance, the Westerners tend to be direct while Chinese are used to behave modest.It is the guest speaker’s or sometimes interpreter’s responsibility to use words or concept of the host speakers and that can also be regarded as a kind of agreement to 24

the host party and its custom for sake of offering more agreement to others.Situations exist when parties hold different opinions toward one issue or when slip of tongue occurs.Interpreters should be pay attention to this strategy, be loyalty to the original words and pass on the meaning to the listeners.3.3 Omission Facing with difficulties in interpretation, omission is one of the strategies most often applied.Omission concludes deletion of words, phrases, sentences or even a paragraph.Here is an example: Please turn to page 20, maybe 22.let me see, yes, 25.Version1:请翻到书的20页，也许是22页，让我看看，第25页。

Version2:请翻到书的第25页。

It costs a lot for the audience to hear page 20, 22and 25 getting themselves busy in turning to pages that are not certain.Thus, it is wise and polite for the interpreter to slip to the final page which is quite certain, or else it will cause a confusing situation.However, this strategy is not proper in all conditions.When comes to important content, no random omission is allowed.Conclusion

Through this paper, the author draws the conclusion that it is very important and feasible to use politeness communicative principle in interpretation.Therefore, when interpreters understand preconditions of the principle and adopt related interpretation strategies, the interpreted version would be better.Since interpreters are already aware of the importance to be polite and feasibility to subjectivity.Besides, some possible ways to deal with subjectivity, interpretation strategies under the direction of politeness communicative principle are are listed in the paper.It is conductive to the improvement of the quality of interpretation and the development of interpreters themselves.Since this paper is done with the aid of many reference books and some papers, there may exist weakness and limitations during the process.Besides, there are causes that actually lead to these limitations: Firstly, as a college student, it is unlikely for the author to get in touch with interpreters in everyday life;Secondly, not doing or observing enough interpreting practice, it is impossible for the author to collect a large number of materials and cover all the areas.Finally, the author has little experience in interpretation, which causes the big trouble to perfect the paper.As a result, based on the materials available and current condition, the author tries best to make the paper reliable.The author hopes that the future researches can spare more efforts in the following aspects.Firstly, researches may collect as much materials as they can through all possible channels in future.If time permits, such kind of collection may 26

produce a more reliable research than this one.Secondly, there is no space and time left for strategies and suggestions.The author just lists three of them to name just a few.It is the hope of the author that future researcher can lay more emphasis on the strategy part to make this research more complete and systematic.Bibliography Brown.P &Levinson, S.Universals in Language Usage [J].Shanghai: Shanghai

Foreign Language Education Press, 1978.Gile, D.An Oral Translation of Oral Discourse [M].New York: Oxford University

Press, 1995.Grice, H.P.Logic and Conversation [J].New York: Academic Press, 1975.Hatim, B.&Mason, I.Discourse and Translator [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign

Language Education Press, 2001.Nida, E.A.Language, Culture and Translating [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign

Language Education Press, 2004.Pochhacker.F.Introducing Interpreting Studies [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign

Language Education Press, 2004.Zhong Shukong.A Practical Handbook of Interpretation [M].Beijing: Beijing

External Translation Press, 2001.顾曰国.跨文化交际 [M].北京: 外语教学与研究出版社, 2005.郭英珍.语用中的礼貌原则与口译的敬体形式 [J].华北水利水电学报, 2004(2).侯林平, 姜泗平.我国近十年来译者主体性研究的回顾与反思 [J].山东科技大

学学报, 2006(3).利奇.语义学 [M].上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 1996.吕炳华.译者主体性的体现.[J] 山东外语外贸大学学报, 2005(1).戚伟燕.译者主体性的体现和强弱.[J] 杭州电子工业学院学报.2004(1).裘姬新.译者主体性及其制约因素 [J].河南科技大学学报, 2004(1).28

王晓雯.合作、礼貌原则与口译 [J].安徽冶金科技职业学院学报.2006(2).29

第三篇：面子理论

语用学中的礼貌原则和面子理论在跨文化交际中的应用 张燕--维普资

谈中西礼貌原则

On Chinese and Western Politeness Principles

浅谈中西方“礼貌原则”对比研究

论文 关键词：中西方

礼貌原则

差异

对比

论文摘要：不同文化类型中的“礼貌原则”存在着差异，这些差异在礼貌用语中有充分的体现。礼貌是对比语言学中语用对比研究一个不可忽略的问题，在迥异的中西方文化中更是如此。中西方两种文化的礼貌原则有着较大的差异，了解这种差异对我们的现实生活具有指导意义。

一、中西方“礼貌原则”的理论研究

1．西方文化中的礼貌概念

西方“礼貌”理论中较有影响的理论框架当属Brown&Levison的“面子论”及Leeeb的“礼貌原则”。两种理论对礼貌的内涵及外延作了较为系统深刻的研究，对不同文化领域的礼貌研究都有一定影响和借鉴意义。Borwn＆Levison的“面子”概念建立在Gofman的定义基础上。根据Gofman的理论，面子对每一个人来说是最神圣的、不可侵犯的，对每一个交际者来说是最基本的、不容忽视的J。但Brown＆Levison的面子概念更为具体，他们认为所有理性的社会成员都具有面子。他们根据个人需要把面子分为两类：消极面子(negativeface)，即个人拥有行动自由、不受干涉的权利；积极面子(Positiveface)，即个人的正面形象或“个性”包括希望这种自我形象受到赞许的愿望。面子有双层性，而且构成面子的双方面是相互矛盾的。在交往时，一方面我们需要与对方有所关联，或者关注对方，并且要向对方表示出我们的关注。面子的“关联”方面就是积极面子，Levison把它称之为积极礼貌(Positivepoliteness)。“积极面子”所常用的语篇方略是：恭听对方谈话，对其表示兴趣，表示与列方有共同之处，相互以名字称呼等。如：“Agree，Ihaveal～waysbelievedthat，too．”另一方面，我们要维护一定的独立性，并且向对方表示我们也尊重他们的独立需求。面子的“独立”方面就是消极面子，Levison把它称之为消极礼貌(negativepoliteness)。实施消极面子的方略主要有：最低限度地推测别人的需求和兴趣，不把自己的意见强加于人，给别人以充分选择的余地。比如向别人建议时，可能会说“I‟denjoygoingoutforcofee，butIimagineyouareverybusy．”实施消极面子的所用方略的关键是不强加于人，使对方享有充分的自由和独立。在现实生活中，交际行为大都是威胁面子的，有时威胁积极面子，比如对别人的观点看法表示反对，抱怨或指责他人工作干得不好，有时说不敬的话或忌讳语电是对积极面子的威胁，这是因为说话者不顾及他人的社会价值。有时一些行为会威胁消极面子，比如命令、请求等，如果对方按照命令或请求去做，就等于他自己的行为自由受到了阻碍，受到了别人的强加。为了避免或减少对面子的威胁，并使正常交际进行下去，说话者要为自己和对方的面子作出一定的努力，这就是礼貌。

2． 中国 文化中的礼貌概念

许多中国学者对礼貌现象也进行了研究，并提出自己的观点与理论。顾日国先生在《礼貌、语用与文化》一文中认为中国传统意义上的“礼貌”包含四个基本概念：尊敬、谦虚、热情、文雅(respecftulness，modesty，attitudinal，warmth and refinement)。尊敬是个人积极肯定别人的面子、社会地位；谦虚可以被看做是贬低自己的另外一种说法；热情是个人对别人表现出友好、关心；文雅是选用雅语，禁用秽语。何兆熊认为与B&L的面子相比，“尊敬”概念相当于尊重列方的积极面子；“谦虚”概念广义上来讲在不同文化里都蕴涵有此含义，但如把它解释为“贬低自己”则只有在中国文化里独具；“热情”概念在Brown＆Levison看来侵犯了他人的自由，并威胁他人的消极面子，但在 现代 汉语里却并不被认为是威胁面子；“文雅”概念代表的是礼貌的规范性，尽管礼貌具有普遍性，但他们并没有提到“文雅”这一概念。在这四个基本概念的基础上，再结合Leech的礼貌原则，顾先生提出了适合于现代汉语的几条准则：贬己尊人准则，称呼准则，文雅准则，得体准则，慷慨准则，求同准则和德、言、行准则。

二、中西方礼貌原则的宏观比较

礼貌是“典型人”(ModelPerson)为满足面子需求所采取的各种理性行为，这种典型人所具有的面子是每一个社会成员意欲为自己挣得的那种在公众中的个人形象。它分为不希望别人强加于自己，自己的行为不受别人的干涉、阻碍，而后者则是指希望得到别人的赞同、喜爱。英语 文化似乎更加偏重于个人主义、独立、隐私，不希望别人过多地干预自己的生活，而这种文化氛围使英国人或美国人更加在意自己的消极面子。在中国，我们则强调集体主义、合作精神。在某种程度上为了实现合作或团结，称赞对方屡试不爽。因此积极面子在中国文化中更为盛行。Grice提出了“合作原则”，较好地解释了语义与语力之间的关系。但Leech认为，这种做法无法说清在现实生活中人们为何要在语言表达中采用间接方式。于是他提出“礼貌原则”(Polite．heSSPrinciple)来拯救“合作原则”。

(1)策略准则(TactMaxim)：尽量减少他人付出的代价、尽量增大对他人的益处；

(2)慷慨准则(GenerosityMxaim)：尽量减少对自己的益处、尽量增大对他人的益处；

(3)赞扬准则(ApprobationMxaim)：尽量缩小对他人的批评、尽量增加对他人的赞扬；

(4)谦虚准则(ModestyMaxim)：尽量缩小对自己的标榜、尽量夸大对自己的批评；

(5)赞同准则(AgreementMaxim)：尽量缩小对他人的不同意见、尽量夸大与他人的相同意见；

(6)同情准则(SympathyMaxim)：尽量缩小对他人的厌恶、尽量扩大对他人的同情

诚然，Leech的礼貌原则之精神是建立在以 英语 文化为主的西方文化之上的，忽视了东方礼貌文化的特殊性。的确，中国 是礼仪之邦，中国人也十分注重礼貌，但伴随礼貌，中国人特讲究“客气”一番，或贬低自我褒赞他人。西方人，尤以英国人为代表，似乎无暇“客气”。所以中国的礼貌源远流长，颇具有中国特色。顾日国曾经撰文归纳了五个中国式的礼貌原则：

(1)“自卑而尊人”与贬己尊人准则；

(2)“上下有义，贵贱有分，长幼有等”与称呼准则；

(3)“彬彬有礼”与文雅准则；

(4)“脸”、“面子”与求同准则；

(5)“有德者必有言”与德、言行准则。

三、中西方礼貌的文化差异

1．中西方礼貌内涵的差异

从传统意义上说，中国社会是以差序格局为主要取向的社会结构，“礼”的基本精神是天地人伦的上尊下卑。不论王公贵族、平民百姓，都必须以“礼”为标准，把自己的行为限制在“礼”所允许的范围之内。可以说“礼”是维系“上尊下卑”等级秩序和亲疏关系的根本。从这个意义上讲，中国社会中，作为“礼”的衍生物——礼貌原则，与西方的礼貌原则有着本质上的区别。中国社会的礼貌原则如同“礼”的基本精神一样，强调“别”，在很大程度上是等级差别的标志。

2．礼貌准则选择侧重上的差异

在Leech的礼貌原则中，策略准则是最重要的，是人们交际时最经常采用的准则，它构成了英语语言文化礼貌原则的核心。在西方社会，个人利益、个****力、隐私等都被当做是神圣不可侵犯的，所以，人们之间，哪怕上级对下级，父母对子女，教师对学生实施“指示性”言语(诸如请示、命令、警告、建议、劝告等)行为时，人们必须遵循策略准则以减少对别人消极面子的威胁，或尽量减少语气的强迫性。

然而，中国的传统来看，人们的行为是受社会期望所制约的。有些人有权力，或适合向别人提出命令、要求、建议、劝告、提醒、威胁、警告等等；而有些人只能处在无条件地接受或完成这些行为的地位。正所谓上下有义、贵贱有分、长幼有序。譬如，通常只有长者对幼者，上级对下级，教师对学生，父母对子女，老板对雇员实施“指示性”言语。反之则不妥，被当成不礼貌的表现。

3．中西方表达礼貌的方式上的差异

(1)恭维与应答。恭维语是一职多能的社会言语行为，即在日常生活交往的不同社会环境中可以完成不同的功能。根据国内外学者的调查，英语恭维语除表示欣赏外，其主要的功能是协同交往双方关系的“一致性”，交际者采用积极礼貌的方略。而汉语恭维语的功能主要集中在：使对方感觉良好；欣赏；利用他人。

(2)邀请与接受。中国人通常采用螺线型思维模式，话语整体结构包括多次话轮转换，经过谈话双方多次协商之后，才能完成一个交易。这种情况在邀请与接受邀请的礼貌会话中体现得尤为明显。邀请人往往三番五次地邀约，以示真心实意，这体现了中国传统礼貌的热情准则。而受邀请人推三托四，邀请人一再坚持。一方面，受邀请人要一再试探对方是否真心，是否只是礼节性的邀请，而非真实邀请。过早接受邀请则会有失于礼节；另一方面，只有一再坚持，才能体现自己的诚意，因此邀请方和受邀请方经常要经过屡次协商才达成一致。

中国社会正在发生着大变革，随着对外交流的进一步扩大，中西方礼貌文化差异渐渐受到人们的重视。礼貌是一面镜子，反映了语言与社会、文化的关系。如何有效地运用礼貌原则达到成功的言语交际和沟通，取决于对东西方文化差异的认识。只有了解和理解了这些文化因素的差异，并且具有成功地与其他文化成员交流的真诚愿望，才能最大限度地克服这种差异制造的交流障碍，进而剔除本民族文化中的糟粕，吸收外来文化的精华，促进文化重组。SympathyMaxim)：尽量缩小对他人的厌恶、尽量扩大对他人的同情。

论跨文化交际中的语用失误与语用移情能力的培养

【论文关键词】语用失误

语用移情

跨文化交际

【论文摘要】语用失误有语言语用失误和社交语用失误两种表现形式。注重语言本身，而忽略了不同语言文化差异是造成语用失误的主要原因。因此，在跨文化交际中要成功消除语用失误所造成的障碍．必须了解目的语语言文化，调整自己的思维定势，做到语用移情。文章分析了跨文化交际语用失误的种类和原因，并且对在外语教学中如何培养学生语用能力和语用移情的习惯提出了一些切实可行的看法和建议。

一、引言

对于跨文化交际中的语用失误，国内许多知名学者如何自然，何兆熊以及其他许多学者都做了很多研究，并且发表了许多相关文章，取得了可喜的成果。这些研究有的侧重广告翻译、社会用语、旅游英语等不同交际领域的语用失误，如郝钦海(2000)，张新红(2000)，陆建平(20O1)，赵湘(2006)等；有些侧重研究称呼语、褒奖行为等具体的言语行为中的语用失误，如李悦娥(1998)，刘小珊(0o1)等。然而他们的研究对于语用失误的原因分析过多，而对于如何解决语用失误的办法研究不够。本文结合非本族语者使用英语的实际情况，分析了语用失误的种类及其根源，并指出培养语用移情能力是解决跨文化交际语用失误的重要途径，同时对如何培养学生的语用移情能力提出了一些切实可行的办法。

二、语用失误

1983年Thomas在他的论文“Pragmaitcfailureincross culturaleommunicali‟中提出了“语用失误”的概念，引起了国内众多学者的注意和兴趣。Thomas认为所谓语用失误是指人们在言语交际中没有达到完满交际效果的差错。“语用失误”这一概念的提出为跨文化研究提供了新的视角。我们可以说，某人说了一句不符合语法规则的话，并称其为“语法错误”，因为语法是规定好了的规则(至少是为了语言教学的目的已经规定好了的)。可是，我们却不能说某句话的语用之力是“错误的”。我们只能说这句话没有达到说话人想要达到的目的。Thomas把语用失误分为语言语用失误和社交语用失误两种具体表现形式：

(一)语言语用失误

语言语用失误指学习者正确地运用了言语行为，却使用了错误的语言手段，即在语言形式的使用上出现了偏差。口语言语用失误的所指对象，是与语言结构相关的各种规则。言语交际中，说话人明白所有这些规则，并在他的具体言语行为中正确地(即没有语法等形式错误)表现出来。然而，说话人虽然能够正确地使用这些规则，却不能得体地使用它们。语言语用失误笼统地指说话人对语言规则(确切地说是静态的语法形式规则)用得不得体。

例如：(1)一位国外中年男士与中国年轻女教师对话：Man：Oh．youlooksopretty．Woman：(witharedface)…Don‟tbejoknig．I‟m ugly．在国外对女性的外貌方面进行恭维是很普遍的现象。女性穿了新衣服，发型有了变化似乎都必须受到及时恭维，不管年龄、社会地位、职业如何。L5这位中国女士得体的回答应该是Thankyou．而不是根据中国的习惯觉得不好意思，谦虚～番。

(2)一位男性美国客人到一家饭店用餐，他点了蜜汁鸡脯，并对女招待说：Wouldyoupleaseservetheehiekenundroessed?(请你上鸡时，别先浇汁，好吗?)女招待是一位刚高中毕业的年轻姑娘，不知客人的要求是上菜时不要把汁事先浇在鸡脯上，他要自己来浇。她只知道undressed是“不穿衣服”的意思，于是大惊失色：No，Ican‟t．Yuo areinChina，sir．(不，不行。这是在中国，先生。)

(3)一位导游人员陪同外宾游览了一天，外宾说：Tiumk you．导游人员忙回答说：Notatal1．It‟smyduyt．导游人员本意是说：这是我应该做的。但他这样说却会让外宾理解为：他本来不想做，但这是他的职责，所以不得不做。适当的回答是I‟m adtobe ofhelp或It‟8apleasure表示“我很乐意(为您效劳)”之类的客套话。

(二)社交语用失误

社交语用失误指学习者未能按照情景的要求，运用言外行为，在意义的得体性方面出现了偏差。社交语用失误在所指上与非语言结构规则有关，主要指说话人使用的非语言结构规则(确切地说是交际规则)，无法保证交际的得体和成功，因此，社交语用失误与交际及其效果关系甚密。社交语用失误属于交际规则用得不合适。例如：

(1)A：lamverybusythesedays．

B：It}linkyoushouldnotbetootired．Youshouldtakeeareofyourself．

A本意是出于关心，但B会以为对方在说他缺乏照顾自己的能力而觉得不快。

(2)在放学回家的路上，有个学生看到一位上了年纪的美国太太艰难、吃力地爬坡时便对她说：“Lethiehelpyou，Mrs．Smiht，youareold．”Smith太太听了脸上露出不高兴的表情。为什么Smiht太太会感到不快，甚至有被冒犯的感觉呢?这是由于不同的民族文化背景造成的。中国人有尊老爱幼的民族传统，常用老来表示对别人的尊敬。我们常常听到“老王”、“老李”之类的称呼。而英美文化中常常把“老”与“年老无用、无力”的意义联系起来，以至于造成误会。

(3)一位中国人在英国大街上拦住一辆出租车说：“CUSehie，woludyoupleasesendmetohterailwaystation．”这位司机觉得很奇怪。因为你坐车是要付钱的，司机为你服务这是他必须而且乐意做的，这时候你说得这么客气反而让人觉得你是没钱付车费而求人家。

三文化介入与语用失误

上述两种语用失误，其关键在于文化的介入而造成交际语言的不得体。这种交流的背后是一种文化的接触和碰撞由于语言使用者受到母语规范习俗和价值观念的制约和影响。生硬套用母语的一些表达方法，便容易导致交际的失败，即语用失误。美国语言学家Edwardsapir指出：“语言不能脱离文化而存在，不能脱离社会继续下来的各种做法与信念，这些做法与信念的总和决定了我们生活的性质。”成功的跨文化交际不仅需要外语学习者具备良好的语言能力，而且也需要了解中西方文化之间的差异，增强其对目的语文化的领悟力和敏感性，提高社会文化能力，避免因文化差异而带来的跨文化语用失误。

中国人和外国人交往时，由于忽视语言在实际场合的运用，忽视东西文化差异，经常发生交际失误：一位在中国工作的美国教师到学校图书馆外文阅览室去看书，路上遇到一个学生也去图书馆。这位学生热情地向前打招呼：Where are you going?这位外教觉得很奇怪：你明明看着我往图书馆去，为什么还要这样问?同时心里也有一丝不快，心想我去干什么关你什么事。

为什么会出现这样的语用失误呢?这个中国学生虽然能够正确地说英语(即没有语音语法错误)，却不能得体地运用它们。中国人见面打招呼常说“吃饭了吗?”“你去哪?”而美国人则说Howaeryou?同时由于民族文化背景不同，英美人士对于Where are you goign?在心里的反应是whv do you ask?甚至可能是h‟8onne of your business．认为是在干涉别人的私事，以至造成“交际短路”。这个例子说明了在跨文化交际中语言得体性的重要性和外语教学中注重文化导入的必要性。

讲英语的人对汉语中的敬辞和谦辞很难理解。在英语中，同自己的上级说话写信时也许需要用比较尊敬的语气，但不需要用什么特殊的词语。而中国人不习惯用平常的话语直截了当、不加修饰地与年长的人、客人或有地位的人说话。试看下面一份请帖：“Will you Dleasehon or hieby coining to my humblehome for asimple meal this Sunday evening?We will eb very pleasedf you call collie at 6 O‟clock．”(兹定于星期13下午6时在寒舍举行便宴，敬请光临。)这是典型的汉语式的英语，没有注意语用移情，让自己的表达方式符合英语的语言文化和表达习惯。如果把这个请帖改成：“Frank，we‟dlike youyou‟re your wife to come over for dinner this Frida yevening．Sixt lirtyat Ourplace．Can you lake it?”这样的表达简明扼要，直截了当，完全符合英语的语言文化和表达习惯。

四、语用移情及其对外语教学的启示

“移情说”是德国的罗勃特·费肖尔在1873年发表的《视觉形成感》一文中首先明确使用的美学概念。日本语言学家库诺(gL,no)最早把移情的概念移植到语言学领域。Ruben认为：在言语交际中，移情指的是能够从他人的角度来看待问题。他把移情能力列为有效交际的七种要素之一。国内最早将“移情”的概念引入语用学的是何自然。他于1991年在《外语教学与研究》上发表的《言语交际中的语用移情》一文中认为，“语言习得者应该理解、感受目的语国家的文化，并设身处在对方的文化背景中进行语言的学习和运用”。

从语用学的角度看，语用移情(pragmaitcempahty)指的是言语交际双方情感相通，能设想和理解对方用意，涉及说话人如何刻意对听话人吐露心声，表达语意，听话人如何设身处地来理解说话人言谈的心态和意图。也就是说人们在言语交际中对交际双方所处的社会历史文化背景有一定的了解度的基础上，为了交际的顺利进行，说话人调整自己的思维定式，在心理上有意识地摆脱本民族文化对自己的束缚和影响，站在对方的语言文化立场上与之交流的一个策略。那么，如何在跨文化交际中做到语用移情呢?

(一)要克服文化迁移对跨文化交际的负面影响。戴炜栋、张红玲指出“文化迁移是指由文化差异而引起的文化干扰，它表现为在跨文化交际中，或外语学习时，人们下意识地用自己的文化准则和价值观来指导自己的言行和思想，并以此为标准来评判他人的言行和思想。文化迁移往往导致交际困难、误解、甚至仇恨”。文化差异是语言使用中的干扰源，是产生语用失误的根源，我们要克服本国文化对学习的干扰作用。学生往往把本国的民族文化内容不加审辨地套用在外语交际中去。由于两种民族文化中诸多因素，因而套用的结果，往往会严重地影响理解和表达的准确性。在课堂上，教师可以分发与课文相关的资料给学生阅读，然后可利用各种直观手段，或组织模拟训练，引导学生把自己既置于英语语言之中，也置于英美文化之中，反复进行练习，争取达到脱口而出的程度。

(二)要培养交际中的文化意识，增强对英语文化的敏感性。各民族由于社会背景、文化传统、生活习俗、社会制度等方面都有自己的特色，这些在语言上都留下了很深的烙印。在跨文化交际中做到语用移情，摆脱自身文化的影响。比如说与操英语的本族人打招呼时不要按照汉语习惯说“吃了吗?…„到哪儿去?”而要按他们的习惯说“Hello…How are you?”或者“I love yweather，isn‟tit?”提高语用能力仅靠课堂时间是远远不够的，应开展丰富多彩的第二课堂活动，以加强学生实际运用的能力，如利用外籍教师的优势开展英语角、英语沙龙、晚会和辩论会等活动开办形式多样的讲座，介绍英美国家的概况、文化及习俗，特别是其中与中国不同的文化习俗，还可以通过收听调频广播或访问互联网站接受原汁原味的英文表达，提高语用能力和听说技能。

(三)广大的外语教师要注重学生语用移情能力的培养。在我国外语教学界有一种认识：语言教学就是语言三要素(语音、词汇和语法)的教学。三要素都学会了，语言也就自然掌握了。以此种理论指导教学实践，其结果往往是：学生虽能说出(或写出)语音(拼写)、词汇和语法完全正确的句子，但是相当一部分不符合“文化语用规范”，导致跨文化交际的失败。另外，课堂设置更多地以学生为中心，鼓励多做分角色对话等练习，让学生在使用英语的过程中把它看成是交际的工具。还有，应鼓励学生充分利用现有的条件，多和英语为母语的人进行交流，多读国外出版的刊物和报纸，多看国外著名影片。总之，教师要向学生强调学习语言中的语言能力和语用能力两个方面，设计合适的练习，使用多媒体设备让学生尽可能多地接触第一手的“真实的”语言材料。

(四)在外语教材的编写上应该重视真实语言环境的再现。学生语用移情能力差的原因还在于教学、教材重视语言形式而忽视语言形式的社会意义，忽视语言在实际场合的运用。许多课本都包含这类“对话”：

——What‟s your name?——My name is Li Mign．

——How old are yon?——I‟m eighteen．

——are you going?——I‟m going the library．

学生往往对这些语言机械模仿，忽视了语言在实际场合的运用。这些对话形式固然正确，但却忽略了讲话是否得体这一重要方面。除了在医院、移民局、警察局这类地方，很难想象会出现一连串这样的问题。

(五)要改革现有的单一的外语测试方式，加强测试学生实际运用英语的能力，对非英语专业学生尝试口语测试。近年来，我国对中国的外语教学，尤其是教学理念、教法、教材、测试等方面作了深入的研究。外语测试也进行了改革，如加强了外语测试中的听力测试，听力测试的题型更加多样化，在测试中所占比重也进一步加大。然而，令人遗憾的是外语口语测试仍然未能有效的开展，即使针对外语专业的口语测试也缺乏有效的模式，如没有真实的情景会话测试等。外语教育也是一门人文科学，科学是无止境的，是需要不断质疑的。英语是外来语，我们对英语的认识，对英语教学及学习规律的认识是在不断的发展之中。我相信随着我国外语教学改革的进一步开展，新的有效的测试模式一定会出现。

第四篇：语用合作原则及礼貌原则在商业广告中的有效运用

英语专业全英原创毕业论文，是近期写作，公布的题目可以用于免费参考

最新200份英语专业全英原创毕业论文，都是近期写作

文化商务交际中的个人主义与集体主义 浅析理发师陶德一剧中歌词的妙用 跨文化商务谈判中的语用原则分析

从文化视角看《了不起的盖茨比》中黛西的无辜

极限环境中的善与恶——浅析《蝇王》中的主要人物人格结构 英汉“骨”与“血”的隐喻研究 商务信函的写作原则与技巧 商务信函中的语气结构分析 苔丝悲剧原因探究

论《永别了，武器》中战争对人物的影响 对比不同思维方式下事物的中英文描述差异 《汤姆叔叔的小屋》中的圣经人物原型分析 从《徳伯家的苔丝》看哈代的贞操观和道德观 试析海明威《丧钟为谁而鸣》中的人物形象 试析《旅游巴士》中的犹太文化内涵 文化语境下归化和异化在翻译中的运用

从《实习医生格蕾》浅析美剧所反映的文化背景和趋势 《麦田里的守望者》中霍尔顿的性格分析 汉英亲属称谓词的文化差异及翻译

Discussion on How to Arouse the Students’Interests in English Learning 中英动物习语的跨文化分析

反复在格特鲁德•斯泰因的作品《三个女人》中的运用 维多利亚时期的艺术对文学的影响——以白衣女人为例 The Tragic Color of Tender Is the Night 论英语称谓语中的性别歧视

增译法在《水晶宫》英译汉翻译中的应用 中西面子观的比较研究

《喜福会》中的女性身份重建 浅析《简•爱》的主人公简•爱 中英报刊新闻标题语言特色探讨 关联理论视角下幽默的英汉翻译

The Analysis of the Representative Images in The Waste Land 论《瓦尔登湖》的生态伦理意蕴

Tradition and Beyond—Reading The Diviners as a Bildungsroman 英语复合名词的认知语义研究 从“水”的隐喻看中西文化的差异 《黑暗之心》主人公马洛的性格分析 从跨文化视角解析商标名称翻译

从文化差异的四维度读解中法葡萄酒文化 “垮掉的一代”形成的背景探析 从《在路上》看“垮掉的一代” 忠实与变通策略在科技翻译中的运用 英语专业全英原创毕业论文，是近期写作，公布的题目可以用于免费参考

从《男孩们女孩们》看身份问题对艾丽斯•门罗文学创作的影响 跨文化交际中的个人主义和集体主义冲突及解决办法 Jude the Obscure and Hardy’s World View

A Linguistic Analysis of Barack Obama’s Inauguration Speech 初中英语课堂教学现状调查

Analysis of the Character Satan in Paradise Lost 从文化价值观对比研究中美企业管理模式的差异 生态视角下《红楼梦》中动植物名称的翻译 英汉基本颜色词的文化内涵对比及其翻译

A Comparison of Chinese and American Food Cultures 英汉色彩词的语用对比研究

中外青年婚姻观念差异——从《柳堡的故事》和《傲慢与偏见》中进行对比 中英身势语中的文化差异

从目的论的角度谈商标翻译的原则及技巧

A Comparative Study Between the Novel To Kill A Mockingbird and Its Film Adaptation 从女性主义视角分析《飘》中斯佳丽人物形象 浅析《老人与海》中人与自然的和谐之美 英语基本味觉词“甜/苦”的隐喻机制 从文化角度谈美国俚语的汉译

A Comparative Study of Politeness Expressions in English and Chinese 中英文称谓语的比较与翻译 从功能翻译理论浅谈公示语翻译

Family Values in Desperate Housewives 女性人格的双重性——从心理学的角度对比分析凯瑟琳和简爱 八十年代以来汉语中英语外来语及翻译 《呼啸山庄》中女主人公人物分析

《嘉莉妹妹》中男女主人公命运的对比分析 广告英语中语言的性别差异

浅谈自有品牌在中国零售企业的发展 苔丝的悲剧成因浅析 文学课程中的文化导入 英语歧义初探及其排除方法 汉语政治话语中的隐喻研究

英文征婚广告和中文征婚广告所体现的文化差异 解读《儿子与情人》中保罗的俄狄浦斯的影响

浅析中西方饮食文化差异—比较“春节”和“圣诞节” Culture Teaching in College English Listening Classrooms 关于英语口语纠错的研究与建议

从《没有国家的人》看一个无政府主义者对人性的呼唤 从语言功能考察汉语公示语英译

《黄鹤楼》五个英译本的语义等值研究 从关联理论角度看《围城》的幽默翻译 从文化差异角度研究商标翻译

A Research of Translation of English Songs into Chinese by Poetic Norms 英语专业全英原创毕业论文，是近期写作，公布的题目可以用于免费参考

乔伊斯《都柏林人》中瘫痪主题分析 88 《智血》中主要人物生命历程解读

基于会话含义理论分析电影《飘》中女主角郝思嘉的性格特征

从精神分析角度解析《一位女士的画像》中伊莎贝尔•阿切尔的婚姻悲剧 91 企业网络营销策略分析

中英数字词语文化内涵对比研究 93 功能对等理论下的新闻词汇翻译 94 克林顿总统就职演说之体裁分析 95 老友记中乔伊的人物形象分析

从《喧哗与骚动》中看复合式意识流手法 97 从林语堂所译《浮生六记》看文化负载词翻译

从寂寞到超然—索尔•贝娄的《赫索格》中书信体的内心独白 99 中西酒文化比较

The Research of the Idea of Contradiction in Songs of Innocence and Experience 101 黑色幽默在《第条军规》中的运用 102 观音与圣母之比较

国际商务谈判中有效的非语言技巧

以“三美论”对比《登高》两个英译版本的“意美”与“音美” 105 爱默生超验主义对世纪美国人生观的影响——以《论自助》为例 106 女权主义翻译理论关照下的《呼啸山庄》多个译本比较研究 107 模糊语言在商务英语沟通中的语用功能 108 浅析哈利波特中的女巫形象

简•奥斯汀小说“傲慢与偏见”中的婚姻观 110 对外交语言准确性与模糊性的语言特点的研究 111 影响英语词汇发展的言外因素

An Adaptation-based Approach to Brand Name Translation 113 论《杀死一只知更鸟》的成长主题 114 礼貌策略在国际商务谈判中的运用 115 论“孔雀东南飞”英译本的译者主体性 116 浅析广告英语中修辞的魅力

On the Diversity and Unity of Contemporary American Feminism 118 浅谈奥斯卡·王尔德的喜剧《认真的重要性》中“谎言”的运用对其情节、语言和人物塑造的作用

论《卡斯特桥市长》的现实意义

《月下独酌》两种英文译本之对比研究 121 家庭生活中的瑞普•凡•温克尔 122 澳大利亚英语词汇和澳大利亚文化

从苔丝和曼桢的角色分析中西文化下女性的抗争 124 论《小妇人》中的美国清教思想

莎士比亚：男权神话的守望者—莎士比亚戏剧的女性主义解读

An Analysis of Two Women in the Film of The French Lieutenant’s Woman —Victorian Woman vs.Modern Woman 127 数字的文化内涵及数字的翻译

TPR教学法在中国儿童英语习得中的运用 英语专业全英原创毕业论文，是近期写作，公布的题目可以用于免费参考

与身体器官有关的中英文习语对比研究

欧亨利与马克吐温的讽刺对比——以短篇小说为例 131 目的论与英文电影片名的翻译 132 中西方新闻报道看道德观差异

从文体风格谈培根散文《论美》的翻译 134 中西餐桌礼仪文化差异

从归化和异化的角度看电影片名的翻译 136 汉语对英语语法学习的负迁移

王尔德童话《夜莺与玫瑰》中的唯美主义

从《康州美国佬在亚瑟王朝》看马克•吐温的幽默讽刺艺术 139 商标翻译分析

从成长小说角度解读《马丁•伊登》

A Feminist Reading of Virginia Woolf and A Room of One’s Own 142 英汉动物词汇文化内涵对比 143 概念整合理论对幽默的阐释力 144 《看不见的人》主题分析

A Tragedy of Ambition on Macbeth 146 中美体育报道的比较

归化与异化在文学翻译中的融合应用——评《红楼梦》两英译本中的习语 148 新闻英语模糊语的语用功能分析 149 英文姓名的起源和文化内涵

Imagery Translation in Classical Chinese Poetry 151 中英礼貌用语的对比研究

152 汽车广告中的中西文化差异研究 153 西方电影片名翻译的功能目的论分析 154 鲁滨逊荒岛生存技能的分析 155 《七宗罪》的人性解剖

156 《沙漠之花》的女性主义研究

157 从唐诗不同译本看数字词汇翻译得与失

158 A Contrastive Study of Cultural Connotations of ―Red‖ in English and Chinese 159 论中西教育观的差异

160 呼啸山庄中希斯克里夫爱与恨的分析 161 《鲁滨逊漂流记》“星期五”被殖民化分析 162 从“龙”一词的文化内涵看汉英文化的差异 163 从美国总统就职演说看美国文化价值观

164 A Brief Analysis of the Differences and Similarities of Chinese and British Wedding Culture 165 《怪物史瑞克》中体现出来的文化特征 166 中西文化差异对品牌翻译的影响

167 A Comparison of the English Color Terms 168 中美肥胖问题比较研究

169 从译者的读者意识看童话英汉翻译 170 科技英语翻译中的词性转换研究

171 从生态批评主义角度看《白鲸》的生态观

172 从《鲁滨逊漂流记》看人的社会化及人的进取精神 英语专业全英原创毕业论文，是近期写作，公布的题目可以用于免费参考

173 小学英语课堂任务设计的研究

174 英汉习语中隐喻的民族性及其翻译策略

175 美国品牌中国本土化进程中的文化冲突与融合

176 澳大利亚传记文学中的土著文化：以《我的位置》为例 177 从功能对等的角度浅析汉语成语中数字的翻译 178 论《傲慢与偏见》中简•奥斯丁的女性主义

179 An Analysis of the D Film Alice in Wonderland from the Perspective of Gothicism 180 从“绝望的主妇”看现代女性主义的困惑

181 欲望与命运－－《推销员之死》与《旅行推销员之死》中主人公的悲剧根源之比较 182 论《儿子与情人》中保罗的爱情悲剧 183 A Brief Study of Anti-female Bias in English 184 《赫索格》中玛德琳的性格

185 On the Translation of Children’s Literature in the Light of the Skopostheory:A Case Study of The dventures of Tom Sawyer 186 Unreliable Narration – The Approach to Irony in Pride and Prejudice 187 英语中称谓语的性别歧视现象 188 英汉人称指示语的对比研究 189 论身势语的跨文化交际应用

190 论《绯闻女孩》中的美国社会文化特征 191 从摩尔•弗兰德斯看世纪英国女性地位 192 浅议我国民营企业薪酬管理

193 《外婆的日常家当》中女性形象象征意义 194 论劳伦斯《儿子与情人》中的“爱”

195 Study on Chinese and Western Menu Translation in View of Dietary Cultural Diversity 196 中西文化差异分析—以国际商务谈判为视角 197 旅游宣传品的翻译

198 《吉檀迦利》中的泛神论思想 199 英汉化妆品说明书对比及汉译策略

200 语用合作原则及礼貌原则在商业广告中的有效运用

第五篇：语用学分析预设理论在广告中的应用

语用学概论学期论文，陈某某，2009121215 分析预设理论在广告语中的应用

陈某某

（哈尔滨工程大学，外语系，黑龙江哈尔滨150001）

摘 要：广告语是日常生活中常见的语言形式，是信息时代化的一个重要社会现象，广告语言属于劝导性说服性的语言，是社会用语的一个重要组成部分，其最终目的是向潜在的顾客群体传递产品或服务信息并最终劝说人们实施购买行为。广告作者为了宣传或促销某种商品和服务,尽可能地采用一切语言及非语言的技巧来实现广告宣传的目的。“预设”就是广告策略中的一个。预设，由于其自身的特点，常被广告撰写人用来增强广告语言的说服效果，从而彰显广告语言的魅力。本文通过回顾预设的理论背景，分析总结了预设在广告语言中的分类以及预设在广告中的功能。通过本文的研究，目的是希望能够帮助广告设计者更加有效地运用语用预设这一策略,设计出更加科学,更具有吸引力的广告。同时也希望对消费者辨别广告信息的真伪和选择适合的产品提供一定的启发。关键词：语用预设;广告;功能;广告语言;Analyze advertising language in the phrase of

Presupposition

CHEN

（HEU，Foreign Languages Department，Heilongjiang Harbin150001）

Abstract:Advertising language is a common form of language in daily life and is an improtant an important social phenomenon in information age.Advertising language is a language of persuasion persuasive, the ultimate goal is to potential customer groups, product or service information transfer and ultimately to persuade people to implement purchasing behavior.Advertising or promotion of the authors of some kind in order to promote goods and services, as much as possible with all the verbal and nonverbal skills to achieve the purpose of advertising.Presupposition is one of a very important language tools.Presupposition has its unique features, which and help enhance the persuasiveness of advertising language and show the charm of advertising language.This paper reviews the theory background of presupposition and analyze the classification of presupposition in advertising language, functions of presupposition,and the use of presupposition in advertising language.The author hope to help advertisers more effective use of the designer presupposition of this strategy, design a more scientific and more attractive advertising.Also hope to distinguish advertising messages to consumers to choose products authenticity and provide some inspiration.Keywords: presupposition;advertising;function;advertising language;

 陈（1989-）,女，山东烟台，哈尔滨工程大学，外语系，09级本科生

语用学概论学期论文，陈某某，2009121215 引言

广告是人类信息交流的产物，在我们的生活环境中无处不在。广告是一种宣传方式，它通过一定的媒介把有关商品、服务的知识或情报有计划地传递给人们。广告也是一种特殊的交际形式，发话者通常是广告主，信息的接受者是消费者，广告主为了推销自己的商品，费尽心思在语言上大做文章以吸引消费者的注意，从而使广告语言成为一种独特的广告文体。研究广告用语可以揭示广告制作者的语用策略，洞察广告宣传背后的诱导机制。（陈新仁，1999）许多专家学者对广告语言从不同的角度进行了研究，本文试图从语用预设的角度对广告用语进行分析，从侧面了解广告主的语用心理。

1.1预设理论

预设（Presupposition），又叫前提或先设，是在哲学以及近年来语言学界范围内比较广泛触及的一个概念最早讨论预设问题的是一百多年前的德国哲学家和逻辑学家弗雷格（Frege），中首次谈到了预设的问题（Frege 1952）。弗雷格认为任何命题都有一个明显的前提，如果某个东西为人们提到，通常情况下一个预设就产生了，即所使用的那个简单名词或复合名词都有所指。弗雷格所用的一个经典的例子就是，如果有人断言 Kepler died in misery.，就预设了命题 Kepler existed.否则这句话毫无意义。但弗雷格对预设的研究毕竟不是专门的，因此也不够精细，后来英国哲学家罗素（B.Russell），斯特劳森（P.F.Strawson）以及其他逻辑学家和语言学家继续探讨了这一话题，在哲学界和语言学界都产生了很大的反响，也出现了更多关于预设的解释和阐述。总之，在过去的几十年里，学者们对预设进行了深入地研究也取得了了一定的进展，但是还远远不够。由于这个问题的复杂性，直到现在仍然没有建立起一种完备的预设理论（索振羽 144）但人们基本上一致认为预设涉及语义和语用两个层面的研究，即语义预设和语用预设 1.1.1语义预设

语义预设是两个句子或命题之间的一种语义关系，它“依附于语言的表层结构，是句子意义得以形成的基础，其根本特征是无论在什么样的言语行为中，句子本身及其预设应是恒定的。语义预设的概念建立在句子真假值的基础之上，和句子本身的意义有着密切的关系。一般用下列真值条件来描述：A预设B，当且仅当A真则B真，A假则B仍真；B真则A或真或假，B假则A非真非假 例如下面的例子中A预设B：(表示预设）A.He has stopped beating his dog.B.He has beaten his dog.（何自然 1997：61）

再如一广告语：农夫山泉有点甜。（农夫山泉矿泉水广告）

有农夫山泉这么一种矿泉水的存在从中我们可以看出句子预设的真实性是保证句子本身真实性的前提，如果预设是假的，那么句子本身就毫无真实性可言或者说就毫无意义。1.1.2语用预设

预设关系不能只靠逻辑语义分析，因为预设对语境十分敏感，它实际上是一种语用推理

语用学概论学期论文，陈某某，2009121215 由此，预设进入语用学的研究视野，语用预设是以句子意义和结构为基础，结合语境推导出来的。语用预设概念是斯塔奈克提出来的。归纳起来有三种主要的说法：第一，语用预设指的是说话人对言语的语境所作的设想；二，语用预设是施行一个言语行为所满足的恰当条件（felicity or appropriateness）；第三，语用预设是交际双方所共有的知识，或者说是背景知识（mutual knowledge or commonground），这种共有的背景知识在话语的发出和理解过程中起着十分重要的作用。1．2语用预设的特征

Levinson将语用预设总结为两个基本概念：合适性(appropriatenessorfelicity)和共知性(mutual knowledgeor commonground)。何自然(1998)概括了语用预设的两个特征，即合适性和共知性。另外，语用预设还具有单向性和潜藏性。

合适性：语用预设是施行言语行为应当满足的合适条件(felicity condition)或是一句话具有必要的社会合适性必须满足的条件。Austin4X为。要使“言”成功地有所为，必须满足三个条件。他称这些条件为“合适条件”。第一，说话人必须是具备实施某一行为的条件的人：第二，说话人对自己要实施的行为必须抱有诚意：第三。说话人对自己所说的话不能反悔(何兆熊，2000)。

共知性：基于说话者与听话者共同的知识系统的．说者先设的某种特定信息如果要被听者理解．受者必须具备先设信息的相关知识。共知性其实就是话语发出者和接收者之间互相理解，达到共鸣的先决条件。广告语中的语用预设之所以可以收到效果．就是建立在观众能理解的基础上的。如果大家都不能理解或者没有相关的语境，那就不存在预设。任何语用预设都应该是可理解的，并且是交流的双方得到共识的。

单向性：指语用预设是由说话人一方面作出的。从这个意义上说，与听话人是没什么关系的。这是话语发出者在输出言语时自行设定的潜在因素．无需解释．因为听话的人可以理解，并且已经把预设作为理解的先决条件。

主观性：指预设由说话者主观决定，与此预设的真实与否不相关。何自然(1997)认为预设的主观性就是带有断言性质的语境假设．本身并不具备必然的真实性或正确性。语用预设在某种特定的语境中，或在句内某些特定的环境中会被取消。这种特性“取决于说话人的态度和信念”。

潜藏性：这是非常有意思的一个特点，也是“圈套”所在。因为对于说话人的预设，听话人往往没法察觉

2.1预设在广告语言应用中的分类

著名语言学家佩斯（Peccei）指出，预设在广告用语中被广泛使用，聪明的广告商们通常不会直白地推销自己的产品，诋毁他人的产品，而是将要传递的信息隐藏在广告语的预设中 下面我们来分析各类预设在广告语言中的实际应用预设可以根据它在话语中的表现情况进行分类。本文参考了近几年研究成果，并结合一些广告实例把预设分为以下几类： 2.1.1事实预设

语用学概论学期论文，陈某某，2009121215 人们常说事实胜于雄辩，广告主利用人们购物怕上当受骗的心理，在推销自己的商品时尽量地摆事实，以事实让人信服 并且还经常请到某行业或领域内的知名人士为其产品代言，然后从他们的口中说出一些响当当的广告词

例如：乐百氏：27 层净化（乐百氏纯净水广告）该广告的预设是：乐百氏纯净水是值得大家信赖的品牌，因为它经过多层净化后，饮用更健康 虽然 27 层净化并不是一个独特的概念，但乐百氏却是第一个提出来的，并把这个概念发挥到极致，形成品牌概念独享 2.1.2信念预设

一个人对待事物的态度往往受到他的世界观，人生信念等因素的支配 因此，广告语言通常的一个做法就是从深层次唤起人们的某种信念，这种策略明显地体现在广告语的预设当中

例如：The taste is great！味道好极了！（雀巢咖啡广告）雀巢咖啡刚进入中国大陆时，人们对咖啡类产品缺乏了解，可能会想到苦涩难喝，所以该广告语预设了，雀巢咖啡味道很好，给人很舒服的感觉从而打消了人们的误解一句味道好极了，大刀阔斧地打开了雀巢在中国的市场 2.1.3状态预设

这类预设一般分为两种：一是预设人们对过去的状态不满意；二是预设在使用了该广告产品后会达到让人非常满意的状态 广告语言通过预设往往将将二者结合在一起

例如，To me, the past black and white, but the future is always color．（对我而言，过去平淡无奇；而未来，却是绚烂缤纷 轩尼诗酒）这里预设了消费者很想摆脱过去枯燥乏味的生活，憧憬未来五彩缤纷的生活 所以能够吸引消费者去买这种酒，为自己的未来生活增添亮色 2.1.4行为预设

促使消费者有所行动是广告的最终目的，所以行为预设是广告语言中的一个常见现象。这类预设就像状态预设一样，可以预设消费者过去的行为，这种行为往往是消费者不愿做得；也可以是预设消费者为了一定的需要现在进行的行为，这种行为需要接受广告的产品才能有效地实施

例如：牙好，胃口就好，身体倍儿棒，吃嘛嘛香 您瞅准喽，蓝天六必治。该广告通过预设牙齿健康与身体健康的紧密联系，从而将护齿与健康联系起来，令消费者心悦诚服的购买六必治牙膏！2.1.5结构预设

这种预设往往与语言的语法结构形式相联系，或者直接体现在某个词汇上，即预设的触发语（presupposition trig-gers）因此，广告语言设计可以充分利用语言的这一特点来引出预设

例如：让我们做得更好 Let us make things better.（飞利浦电器广告）该广告通过词语 更 来预设我们过去已经做得很好了，将来我们会做得更好 这样就能增加消费者对他 4

语用学概论学期论文，陈某某，2009121215 们品牌的信任 2.1.6文化预设

文化预设表现为文化现实与语句文化背景之间的联系，生活于同一文化环境中的成员对自己所处的社会与文化有着独特的敏感性和倾向性 因此，特定文化环境下的广告语言也表现出了自己的文化特色，来获得大众的认同

例如：Our wheels are always turning.（五十菱汽车广告）此广告词借用了希腊神话中的一个典故，希腊神话中讲幸运视为永远转动的轮子（The wheels of fortune is always turning）五十菱广告巧妙地借用此典故来预设他的汽车车轮和方向盘永转不停，含有幸运和坚固的言外之意 只有明白了这一文化预设，才能更好地理解该广告的言外之意因此，无论是哪一种预设在广告中的应用，都进一步论证了广告用语的策略性，从上面的分析我们也不难看出，预设在一些优秀经典的广告语中发挥了积极的作用，这样的广告语不仅仅是加深了人们对广告产品的印象，更主要的是体现了语言的魅力 2.1.7特征预设

广告厂商为了突出商品使用后的效果，将某些预期特征先设进了广告语中．使受众心理产生对预期效果的憧憬，由此加强购买欲望。

例如：美来自内心，美来自美宝莲!（美宝莲化妆品的广告）这句广告语就将“美”这个预期特征预设到了其中，使受众有“用了美宝莲就变美”的共识，最终达到宣传的效果。

又如：飘柔，就是这样自信!（飘柔洗发水的广告）这义将“自信”这个与其特征预设到了广告语中，使受众觉得用飘柔洗发水洗头，会变得更加自信，因为头发会变得很好。虽然语句很简洁，也没有明显的劝导语，但是宣传效果一点也不弱．符合广告简洁上口、特征鲜明、说服力强但又含蓄的要求。2.1.8反向预设

这类广告语中的语用预设就是利用受众的心理，将反面的情况预设进了广告语中，也就是消费者不希望或不愿意或不承认的事情。从一个反面来刺激消费者购买商品。

例如：你值得拥有!（欧莱雅化妆品的广告语）就这么五个字，但是却很有商业效果，它预设了一个重要的信息。那就是存在一个有着高雅气质与品位的你，值得去拥有欧莱雅，它是提升你的美貌与气质的产品。几乎没有人会认为自己不值得拥有．这是谁也不会想的，既然值得拥有，那就赶紧买吧。所以这就是广告语的“陷阱”所在，不仅提升了产品的档次，而且有一种激将法的味道。

又如：自然堂的广告语：你本来就很美!也是很简单的六个字，预设了你的“美”．没有人会希望自己丑，这旬广告语预设存在了一个本来就很美的 “你”。让消费者为了激发自己先天的美而蠢蠢欲动。

2.2基于触发语的广告中的预设种类

预设触发语(trigger)，又叫前提触发语，它是产生预设的关键词，在语句中使用预设触发语可以造成预设。广告作者可以根据广告商品的特点利用预设触发语创造出各种不同的 5

语用学概论学期论文，陈某某，2009121215 预设。根据所使用预设触发语的不同，运用预设策略的广告语可以被分成以下常见的四种。2.2.1．触发语为否定词

在广告语中可以使用否定词“不再、不如、没有”等预设触发语形成预设。

例如某婴儿洗发水的广告语：“宝宝不再泪汪汪”。给婴幼儿洗头发时，洗发水很容易流入眼中，婴儿自然会啼哭不止．泪眼汪汪．这样弄得家长不但烦心而且不知所措。此产品正好抓住了消费者的这种心理，“不再”两字作为触发语预设了过去用其他产品会让宝宝泪汪汪，而用他们的产品不会，2.2.2．触发语为表示反复的词语

在谓语前面使用-些表示反复的词语也能触发预设，如”更、更加、越、越发、都、还、再、又、也”等。

例如 “润妍倍黑新配方，让秀发更黑更有生命”（宝洁公司的润妍润发素广告）。这句广告语里出现了两个”更”，预设了“头发本来就很黑很有生命力”。要知道人都是喜欢被别人表扬的．这无疑抓住了用户的爱美爱俏的心理。如果把这则广告改为：“润妍倍黑新配方．使您枯黄的头发变黑变得有生命力”，那么似乎这则广告预设了用户为老年人．年轻人自然无人问津。所以有的时候预设是可以和用户心理结合起来的．只要广告商抓住了这个特点．广告语自然会受人欢迎。

类似的例子还有飞利浦的广告语：“让我们做得更好!“用 “更”宇预设“我们以前就做得很好”．但是我们要更加努力，做得更好．精益求精；脑白金的广告语：“今年孝敬咱爸妈．礼品还送脑白金”．用“还”字预设“前几年就送脑白金孝敬爸妈”，今年还要坚持送脑白金．因为脑白金是好产品。2.2.3触发语为疑问句

广告语中经常使用疑问句来形成预设。例如“今天你喝了没有？”是我们大家都非常熟悉的”乐百氏”奶的一句广告语。它通过一种在大庭广众之下的公开质询，用疑问句预设了”别的人都喝了，你今天也要喝”，给消费者施加一种心理上的压力。它利用普遍存在于我们社会中的攀比心理进行诉求，既然别人都喝了．那你也应该喝。”今天你喝了没有？”这一声询问是亲切的．却有一种强硬的语调．同时又包含了一种建议的语气．在这种公开的强烈压力环境下你必须作出选择。2.2.4．触发语为确定性的描述

确定性的描述指的是句子中的一些名词、代词或名词性短语，这些都可以触发预设。例如喜立滋啤酒的广告语“喜立滋啤酒是经过蒸汽消毒的”中的”喜立滋啤酒”和”蒸汽消毒”分别预设了”喜立滋啤酒的存在”和“蒸汽消毒过的啤酒有益身体健康”．从而可推断出另一个预设：其他品牌的啤酒没有经过蒸汽消毒，对健康不利。看过啤酒生产的人都知道，其实所有品牌的啤酒都是经过蒸汽消毒的．但是其他的厂家都没有这样说过．现在喜立滋抢先说出来了．便在消费者中造成了不同凡响的效果。为此，喜立滋啤酒的销量从第五跃居第一。文章开头的七喜汽水的广告语就是运用了同样的方法取得成功的。

语用学概论学期论文，陈某某，2009121215 类似的例子还有”黑牛”牌豆奶广告语：”豆奶，还是’黑牛’好”，预设了广大用户喝过其他牌子的豆奶．还是觉得黑牛豆奶是最好的；创维彩电广告语：“不闪的才是健康的”，预设了其他品牌的彩电的屏幕会闪烁，只有创维彩电的屏幕才是不闪的。3.预设在广告中的功能

根据广告语言的特点和消费者的心理．在广告中使用预设策略能够帮助广告商更好地实现广告的促销目的。下面从四个方面来探讨预设在广告中的具体功能。1．增强概括力，用语简练，富于感情。

对于电视上连珠炮般急涌而出的一大堆形容词和术语的广告．我们往往一訇也记不住．而对言简意赅的广告却历久不忘。因此，只有精炼有力的广告才能使消费者维持印象，保持对广告商品的记忆。预设作为一种语用推理，被当作已知的或业已存在的知识而无需说出，由此相应的语言就可以省略掉，所以使用预设可以使广告语言简洁，增强概括力。

例如潘婷洗发水的广告语“拥有健康．当然亮泽“．广告受众能够很容易推断出其中的预设：“潘婷洗发水含有丰富的营养成分，能够促进头发健康生长，从而使您拥有亮泽的头发”，简短的八个字，就概括了要表达的广告信息．让人过目不忘．印象深刻。2．提高吸引力，回味无穷，产生美感。

在当今快节奏的社会，面对众多铺天盖地的广告．消费者不可能停留欣赏每个广告．因此要成功地达到广告的目的，吸引消费者的注意力是关键的第一步。利用疑问句触发预设的广告语很容易抓住人们的好奇心，从而吸引人们的注意力。

例如电冰箱广告语：“为什么很多消费者选择绿色、节能电冰箱Gesere广用疑问句预设了“有很多消费者选择了绿色、节能电冰箱Gesere”。事实上不一定有非常多的消费者选择该品牌的冰箱．但是广告商这样提出了，消费者很容易受到诱导．信以为真。既然那么多人都买了Gesere冰箱，那么他们也要买．该广告正是抓住了跟风这一大众心理，利用疑问句制造预设，从而吸引了消费者的眼球。3．增加趣味性

生动活泼、具有美感的语言形式是吸引消费者注意力的重要因素．相反．呆板的语言不仅不具备这种功能．反而会令人反感。预设形式能够使广告中同样的信息以灵活多变的方式表达出来．从而取代一成不变的断言方式。

例如，婴儿洗发水的广告语 “宝宝不再泪汪汪”，远比直接说“用其他产品会让宝宝的眼睛受到伤害，我们的产品具有温和的配方，不会刺激您宝宝的眼睛”要形象生动．给人印象深刻。直接大篇幅地叙述宣传产品的功能容易让人产生乏味的感觉。某防盗保险柜的广告语”有了它您还用担心受怕吗7”与这则广告有着异曲同工之妙。4.结论

广告语的预设只是广告的一个部分，属于广告的语词层面。其实影响广告预设的因素还有很多，如广告的广义语境，包括广告画面、音乐效果、明星效应和观众的认知程度、知识背景等。这些因素都与广告语预设相辅相成、互相影响制约。广告语的预设也只是预设的一 7

语用学概论学期论文，陈某某，2009121215 小部分。本文通过对预设研究和预设在广告中使用的分类的简要论述，运用大量的广告实例，分析论证了广告语言当中的预设现象，广告语当中的预设可以分为事实，状态，行为，结构，信念，特征，文化，反向预设等几类，从中我们也可以看出预设的合适性，共知性，单向性和隐蔽性的特点，并从触发语出发，对广告中的预设进行了分类，从而了解了预设对广告的功能。所以对于广告的设计者来说，应该意识到语言中的预设这一现象，从而用之设计出更优秀的，更吸引人的广告作品；另外消费者也要增强对广告语言的辨别能力，以免被商家的言语技巧和虚假广告所欺骗

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